India: Papaya cultivation faces threat from 'Mealy Bug' pest in Tamil Nadu
Papaya cultivation in Tamil Nadu is faced with a serious threat from a new kind of pest called 'Mealy Bug' which has invaded the crop.
In India, Papaya is cultivated in 8000 hectares of area whereas in Tamil Nadu alone Papaya is cultivated in about 3000 hectares area.
The farmers have suffered losses due to the sudden outbreak of the pest, which has a high resistance to pesticides due to their waxy body surface.
The pest from Mexico spreads fast across fruits and crops. It is small in size and lay around 1500 eggs in one season.
"When we approached the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University for the solution of the problem, they suggested some pesticides which does not prove to be effective. The situation is a fix, as what do we do? We have grown this cultivation on more than 2 acre of land, and 50,000 rupees have been spent per acre. And in spite of that we have suffered huge loses. We are fully dependent only on this and now find it very difficult to even sustain our living," said Krishnaswamy, a worried farmer.
Papaya production has already been affected a lot compared to the previous year's production and export.
"Farmers if see the insects on their crop, they immediately go for an insecticide or for the combination products. If one insecticide works well the first time then they give the repeated application of the insecticide, which is not correct, " said Jonathan, Director, Centre For Plant Production Studies, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University.
Farmers fear that if similar situation continues for long it will destroy the entire Papaya crop affecting the livelihood of farmers.
Tuesday, January 26, 2010
MANGO PRICE?
POOR ARRIVALS PUSH UP MANGO PRICE S.KUMARESAN 9003612277
The price of the mango, the fruit of the common man in summer, has increased to unprecedented levels. The price has certainly more than doubled and in some cases increased by even four times depending on the variety.
The increase is not restricted to one region of the country. In Mumbai, a particular variety of mango which was selling at Rs.70-80 a dozen last year is now quoted at Rs.350-400. In Chennai, the Bangalore variety, a cheap one is selling at about Rs.20 a kilogram, more than double the price of last year. The situation is no different in Delhi too. The price of Safeda, a good quality mango, is over Rs.40 a kilogram.
Poor Arrivals
The abnormal increase in the prices of mangoes is attributed to the poor arrival of the fruit in the market. This year, only four or five truck loads of mangoes are coming to Chennai every day as against 30 to 40 truck loads last year. About 100 to 150 boxes of Alphonso variety are arriving daily this year from Ratnagiri in Maharashtra as against 500 to 600 boxes last year says Shri Elangovan, Secretary of the Chennai Fruit Commission Agents Association at Koyambedu wholesale market. Another vendor Shri Marimuthu said even the Malgova variety from the nearby Salem started arriving late this year.
Sharp fall in Production
Usually, the shortfall in production will be offset by a bumper crop in some other region of the country. This year, the yield of the mango crop suffered uniformly throughout the country. An estimate puts the shortfall at 45 per cent for the whole country. As against the normal production of 110 lakh tonnes a year, the current year's production is estimated at 60 lakh tonnes only. The yield has fallen by about 40 per cent in Andhra Pradesh which accounts for 28 per cent of the total mango production in the country. The output in Karnataka, which accounts for seven per cent of the production, is significantly low. In Tamilnadu, production fell by about 60 per cent in the main mango producing area of Dharmapuri, Krishnagiri and Salem. However, the production of varieties like Bangalore, Kalapad and Neelam has not been affected much.
Causes of Crop Failure
The failure of the mango crop is not restricted to India alone. The South-East Asian countries, like Thailand, Indonesia and Philippines have reported fall in their production this year. Experts believe that environmental degradation such as the forest fire in Indonesia and E1 Nino effect could be the cause for the crop failure in these countries. ' In our country, the unseasonal rains leading to extended winter and consequent low temperature in the North did not allow adequate and timely flowering. Thereafter, the rise in temperature and rains resulting in the increasing humidity levels which led to breeding of insects, proved harmful to the mango crop' according to experts in the field. In the South, continuous rains in the mango growing areas resulted in flowers failing to bloom in the last December and january. The heavy rains also affected the pollination. The absence of the dew in the flowering season also contributed to this phenomenon.
Mango "King of the Fruits"
Mango is the favourite fruit in all parts of the country and has repeatedly been acclaimed as the "king of fruits". In area, production and popularity of the appeal, mango tops the list of fruits. No other country can surpass India in the number of mango varieties and the richness of the flavours. The climate of the country is ideally suited for mango cultivation.
Mango is grown in different parts of the country except at an altitude of above 3,000 feet. Mango cultivation in the country accounts for 42 per cent of the area under fruit cultivation. Uttar Pradesh occupies the pre-eminent position by having the largest area under mango crop followed by Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Karnataka, Tamilnadu and Gujarat.
Mango Varieties
In India, about 1,500 varieties of mango are grown including 1,000 commercial varieties. Each of the top varieties of the mango has a unique taste and flavour, giving the fruit a quality par excellence. The most sought after variety, Alphonso, is mainly cultivated in Ratnagiri in Maharashtra, Bulsar in Gujarat and also in Karanataka. Dashehari, Langra, Bombay Green and Chausa are grown in UP. Another top variety, Himsagar is cultivated in West Bengal. Banganapalli, Neelam, Bangalora and Swarnarekha are abound in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Alphonso, Dashehari and Banganapalli are exported to some countries.
The Dashehari is a fibreless fruit with a delicate taste. It is medium sized roundish oval and greenish. Bombay Green called Maldain UP and Sehroli in Delhi is a very sweet and greenish fruit having a strong flavour. This variety is identical with Bombay Yellow which develops a yellowish colour near the shoulder. Alphonso also called Hafus, Aapus, Badami, Gundu, Khader and Patnam Jathi is one of the best varieties of the country.
Neelam or Kaja Laddu is a ovate oblique and yellow fruit of a fair quality. Ramani a moderately good fruitisapple-shaped and yellow in colour with a red blush on the shoulder.
Another variety Banganpalli, also called Baneshan, Chapta, Chapatai and Safeda in the North is a good large-sized, obliquely oval and yellow fruit. Malgova, a large roundish-oblique yellow fruit is of a good quality. It is very suitable for making preserves and has a good keeping quality. Swarnarekha, a fairly good fruit and a good keeping quality, is a very early variety of coastal Andhra Pradesh. It is exported to the markets in North India. It is also called Chinna Swarnarekha and Sundari or Sandhuri in the Delhi market.
Nutritious
Good mango varieties contain over 20 per cent of the total soluble solids (sugars). The acid content of ripe dessert fruit varies from 0.2 to 0.5 per cent and the protein content is about one per cent. Mango is also considered to have medicinal properties. The ripe fruit is fattening, diuretic and laxative. It helps to increase digestive capacity and the brain power. Mango has a special place in our culture. References to mango tree and the fruit are abound in our epics and literature. Mango was cultivated in India as early as four thousand years ago. Still, it remains a fruit that almost every Indian enjoys.-PIB
The price of the mango, the fruit of the common man in summer, has increased to unprecedented levels. The price has certainly more than doubled and in some cases increased by even four times depending on the variety.
The increase is not restricted to one region of the country. In Mumbai, a particular variety of mango which was selling at Rs.70-80 a dozen last year is now quoted at Rs.350-400. In Chennai, the Bangalore variety, a cheap one is selling at about Rs.20 a kilogram, more than double the price of last year. The situation is no different in Delhi too. The price of Safeda, a good quality mango, is over Rs.40 a kilogram.
Poor Arrivals
The abnormal increase in the prices of mangoes is attributed to the poor arrival of the fruit in the market. This year, only four or five truck loads of mangoes are coming to Chennai every day as against 30 to 40 truck loads last year. About 100 to 150 boxes of Alphonso variety are arriving daily this year from Ratnagiri in Maharashtra as against 500 to 600 boxes last year says Shri Elangovan, Secretary of the Chennai Fruit Commission Agents Association at Koyambedu wholesale market. Another vendor Shri Marimuthu said even the Malgova variety from the nearby Salem started arriving late this year.
Sharp fall in Production
Usually, the shortfall in production will be offset by a bumper crop in some other region of the country. This year, the yield of the mango crop suffered uniformly throughout the country. An estimate puts the shortfall at 45 per cent for the whole country. As against the normal production of 110 lakh tonnes a year, the current year's production is estimated at 60 lakh tonnes only. The yield has fallen by about 40 per cent in Andhra Pradesh which accounts for 28 per cent of the total mango production in the country. The output in Karnataka, which accounts for seven per cent of the production, is significantly low. In Tamilnadu, production fell by about 60 per cent in the main mango producing area of Dharmapuri, Krishnagiri and Salem. However, the production of varieties like Bangalore, Kalapad and Neelam has not been affected much.
Causes of Crop Failure
The failure of the mango crop is not restricted to India alone. The South-East Asian countries, like Thailand, Indonesia and Philippines have reported fall in their production this year. Experts believe that environmental degradation such as the forest fire in Indonesia and E1 Nino effect could be the cause for the crop failure in these countries. ' In our country, the unseasonal rains leading to extended winter and consequent low temperature in the North did not allow adequate and timely flowering. Thereafter, the rise in temperature and rains resulting in the increasing humidity levels which led to breeding of insects, proved harmful to the mango crop' according to experts in the field. In the South, continuous rains in the mango growing areas resulted in flowers failing to bloom in the last December and january. The heavy rains also affected the pollination. The absence of the dew in the flowering season also contributed to this phenomenon.
Mango "King of the Fruits"
Mango is the favourite fruit in all parts of the country and has repeatedly been acclaimed as the "king of fruits". In area, production and popularity of the appeal, mango tops the list of fruits. No other country can surpass India in the number of mango varieties and the richness of the flavours. The climate of the country is ideally suited for mango cultivation.
Mango is grown in different parts of the country except at an altitude of above 3,000 feet. Mango cultivation in the country accounts for 42 per cent of the area under fruit cultivation. Uttar Pradesh occupies the pre-eminent position by having the largest area under mango crop followed by Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Karnataka, Tamilnadu and Gujarat.
Mango Varieties
In India, about 1,500 varieties of mango are grown including 1,000 commercial varieties. Each of the top varieties of the mango has a unique taste and flavour, giving the fruit a quality par excellence. The most sought after variety, Alphonso, is mainly cultivated in Ratnagiri in Maharashtra, Bulsar in Gujarat and also in Karanataka. Dashehari, Langra, Bombay Green and Chausa are grown in UP. Another top variety, Himsagar is cultivated in West Bengal. Banganapalli, Neelam, Bangalora and Swarnarekha are abound in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Alphonso, Dashehari and Banganapalli are exported to some countries.
The Dashehari is a fibreless fruit with a delicate taste. It is medium sized roundish oval and greenish. Bombay Green called Maldain UP and Sehroli in Delhi is a very sweet and greenish fruit having a strong flavour. This variety is identical with Bombay Yellow which develops a yellowish colour near the shoulder. Alphonso also called Hafus, Aapus, Badami, Gundu, Khader and Patnam Jathi is one of the best varieties of the country.
Neelam or Kaja Laddu is a ovate oblique and yellow fruit of a fair quality. Ramani a moderately good fruitisapple-shaped and yellow in colour with a red blush on the shoulder.
Another variety Banganpalli, also called Baneshan, Chapta, Chapatai and Safeda in the North is a good large-sized, obliquely oval and yellow fruit. Malgova, a large roundish-oblique yellow fruit is of a good quality. It is very suitable for making preserves and has a good keeping quality. Swarnarekha, a fairly good fruit and a good keeping quality, is a very early variety of coastal Andhra Pradesh. It is exported to the markets in North India. It is also called Chinna Swarnarekha and Sundari or Sandhuri in the Delhi market.
Nutritious
Good mango varieties contain over 20 per cent of the total soluble solids (sugars). The acid content of ripe dessert fruit varies from 0.2 to 0.5 per cent and the protein content is about one per cent. Mango is also considered to have medicinal properties. The ripe fruit is fattening, diuretic and laxative. It helps to increase digestive capacity and the brain power. Mango has a special place in our culture. References to mango tree and the fruit are abound in our epics and literature. Mango was cultivated in India as early as four thousand years ago. Still, it remains a fruit that almost every Indian enjoys.-PIB
MANGO DISEASE 11
MANGOES IN INDIA
This site is developed for all who are interested in mangoes. For further questions/ information you can send comments or mail to
sskumar2129@gmail.com
VARIETIES: Characteristics of important Indian varieties, Hybrid Varieties
PORPAGATION : Inarching, Veneer grafting, Budding, Stone Epicotyl grafting, Soft-wood grafting, Air layering
PLANTING: Time of planting, Planting distance, Size of pits, Filling of pits, Planting of grafts, Training and pruning
FERTILIZERS: Quantity of fertilizer, Time of fertilizer application, Method of fertilizer application
IRRIGATION, INTERCULTURE, INTERCROPPING
REJUVENATION OF MANGO ORCHARD
DISEASES: Powdery mildew, Anthracnose, Die back , Phoma blight , Bacterial canker, Red rust , Sooty mould Postharvest Diseases
PESTS: Hopper, Mealy bug , Inflorescence midge, Fruitfly, Scale insects, Shoot borer, Bark-eating caterpillar, Stem borer, Shoot gall psylla, Leaf webber, Stone weevil
DISORDERS: Mango malformation, Biennial bearing, Fruit drop, Black tip, Clustering disorder in mango (‘Jhumka’)
MATURITY, HARVESTING, PACKAGINGSTORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION,
PROCESSING:Raw mango products Pickle, Amchoor, Slices, Green mango beverage:
Ripe mango products: Pulp, Beverages (Juice and Nectar), Squash, Slices, Mango Leather or Aam Papad
WASTE UTILIZATION
Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is the most important fruit of India. It is grown over an area of 1.23 million hectares in the country producing 10.99 million tonnes. It accounts for 22.1 per cent of total area (5.57 million ha) and 22.9 per cent of total production of fruits (47.94 million tonnes) in the country. Though Uttar Pradesh has the largest area of 0.27 million hectares under mango, Andhra Pradesh has the highest productivity of 12 tonnes per hectare. While Andhra Pradesh produces 3.07 million tonnes of mango, U.P., Bihar and Karnataka produce 2.39, 1.79 and 0.92 million tonnes, respectively. India ranks first among world’s mango producing countries accounting for 52.63 per cent of the total world’s mango production of 19 million tonnes.
CLIMATE
Mango is very well adapted to tropical and subtropical climates. It thrives well in almost all the regions of the country from sea level to an altitude of 1500 m, i.e., from Cape Comerin to Himalayas. However, it cannot be grown commercially in areas above 600 m. Temperature, rainfall, wind velocity and altitude are the main climatic factors which influence its growth and fruiting. It cannot stand severe frost, especially when the tree is young. High temperature by itself is not so injurious to mango, but in combination with low humidity and high winds, affects the trees adversely.
Most of the mango varieties thrive in places with good rainfall (75 to 375 cm per annum) and dry season. The distribution of rainfall is more important than its amount. Dry weather before blossoming is conducive to profuse flowering. Rain during flowering is detrimental to the crop as it interferes with pollination. However, rain during fruit development is good but heavy rains cause damage to ripening fruits. Strong winds and cyclones during the fruiting season can play havoc as they cause excessive fruit drop.
SOIL
Mango grows well on wide variety of soils, such as lateritic, alluvial, sandy loam and sandy. Although it grows very well in high to medium fertility soils, its cultivation can be made successful even in low fertility soils by appropriate management especially during early stages of growth. Very poor and stony soils on hill slopes should, however, be avoided. The loamy, alluvial, well drained, aerated and deep soils rich in organic matter with a pH range of 5.5 to 7.5 are most for mango cultivation. The extremely sandy, shallow, rocky, water-logged, heavy textured and alkaline or calcareous soils are not suitable for mango cultivation.
VARIETIES
There are more than thousand mango varieties in India. However, only about 30 varieties are grown on commercial scale in different states.Important mango varieties cultivated in different states of India
States
Varieties
Andhra Pradesh Banganpalli, Bangalora,Cherukurasam, Himayuddin, Suvarnarekha
Bihar Bombai, Langra, Fazri, Himsagar, Kishen Bhog, Sukul, Bathua
Goa Fernandin, Mankurad, Alphonso
Gujarat Alphonso, Kesar, Rajapuri, Vanraj
Haryana Dashehari, Langra, Bombay Green
Karnataka Alphonso, Bangalora, Mulgoa, Neelum, Pairi
Kerala Mundappa, Olour, Pairi
Madhya Pradesh Alphonso, Bombai, Langra and mostly seedling types
Maharashtra Alphonso, Kesar, Mankurad, Mulgoa, Pairi
Orissa Baneshan, Langra, Neelum, Suvarnarekha and mostly seedling types
Punjab Dashehari, Langra, Chausa
Tamil Nadu Banganpalli, Bangalora, Neelum, Rumani, Mulgoa
Uttar Pradesh Bombay Green, Dashehari, Fajri, Langra, Safeda Lucknow, Chausa
West Bengal Bombai, Himsagar, Kishan Bhog, Langra
Characteristics of important Indian varieties
1. Alphonso : This is the leading commercial variety of Maharashtra state and one of the choicest varieties of the country. This variety is known by different names in different regions, viz. Badami, Gundu, Khader, Appas, Happus and Kagdi Happus. The fruit of this variety is medium in size, ovate oblique in shape and orange yellow in colour. The fruit quality is excellent and keeping quality is good. It has been found good for canning purpose. It is a mid season variety
2. Bangalora : It is a commercial variety of south India. The fruit size is medium to large, its shape is oblong with necked base and colour is golden yellow. Fruit quality is poor. Keeping quality is very good. It is widely used for processing. It is a mid season variety.
3. Banganpalli: It is a commercial variety of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu and also known as Chapta, Safeda, Baneshan and Chaptai. Fruit is large in size and obliquely oval in shape. The colour of the fruit is golden yellow. Fruit quality and keeping quality are good. It is a mid season variety and is good for canning.
4. Bombai : It is a commercial variety from Bihar state. It is also known as Malda in West Bengal and Bihar. Fruit size is medium, shape ovate-oblique and colour yellow. Fruit quality and keeping quality are medium. It is an early season variety.
5. Bombay Green : It is commonly grown in north India due to its early ripening habit. It is also called Malda in Northern India. Fruit size is medium, shape ovate oblong and fruit colour is spinach green. Fruit quality is good and keeping quality is medium. It is a very early variety.
6. Dashehari : This variety derives its name from the village Dashehari near Lucknow. It is a leading commercial variety of north India and one of the best varieties of our country. The fruit size is medium, shape is oblong to oblong oblique and fruit colour is yellow. Fruit quality is excellent keeping quality is good. It is a mid season variety and is mainly used for table purpose.
7. Fajri : This variety is commonly grown in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal. Fruit is very large, obliquely oval in shape. Fruit colour is light chrome. Fruit quality and keeping quality are medium. This is a late season variety.
8. Fernnadin : This is one of the oldest varieties of Bombay. Some people think that this variety originated in Goa. Fruit size is medium to large, fruit shape is oval to obliquely oval and fruit colour is yellow with a red blush on shoulders. Fruit quality and keeping quality are medium. It is a late season variety mostly used for table purpose.
9. Himsagar : This variety is indigenous to Bengal. This is one of the choicest varieties of Bengal and has gained extensive popularity. Fruit is of medium size, ovate to ovate oblique. Fruit colour is yellow. Both fruit and keeping quality are good. It is an early variety.
10. Kesar : This is a leading variety of Gujarat with a red blush on the shoulders. Fruit size is medium, shape oblong and keeping quality is good. It is an early variety.
11. Kishen Bhog : This variety is indigenous to Murshidabad in West Bengal. Fruit size is medium, fruit shape is roundish oblique and fruit colour is yellow. Fruit quality and keeping quality are good. It is a mid season variety.
12. Langra : This variety is indigenous to Varanasi area of Uttar Pradesh. It is extensively grown in northern India. Fruit is of medium size, ovate shape and lettuce green colour. Fruit quality is good. Keeping quality is medium. It is a mid season variety.
13. Mankurad : This variety is of commercial importance in Goa and in the neighbouring Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra. The variety develops black spots on the skin in rainy season. Fruit is medium in size, ovate in shape and yellow in colour. Fruit quality is very good. Keeping quality is poor. It is a mid season variety.
14. Mulgoa : This is a commercial variety of southern India. It is quite popular among the lovers of mango owing to high quality of its fruit. Fruit is large in size, roundish oblique in shape and yellow in colour. Fruit quality is very good. Keeping quality is good. It is a late season variety.
15. Neelum : This is a commercial variety indigenous to Tamil Nadu. It is an ideal variety for transporting to distant places owing to its high keeping quality. Fruit is medium in size, ovate oblique in shape and saffron yellow in colour. Fruit quality is good and keeping quality is very good. It is a late season variety.
16. Chausa : This variety originated as a chance seedling in the orchard of a Talukadar of Sandila district Hardoi, U.P. It is commonly grown in northern parts of India due to its characteristic flavour and taste. Fruit is large in size, ovate to oval oblique in shape and light yellow in colour. Fruit quality is good keeping quality is medium. it is a late variety.
17. Suvarnarekha : This is a commercial variety of Visakhapatnam district of Andhra Pradesh. Other synonyms of this variety are Sundari, Lal Sundari. Fruit is medium in size and ovate oblong in shape. Colour of the fruit is light cadmium with a blush of jasper red. Fruit quality is medium and keeping quality is good. It is an early variety.
18. Vanraj : It is a highly prized variety of Vadodra district of Gujarat and fetches good returns. Fruit is medium in size, ovate oblong in shape and colour is deep chrome with a blush of jasper red on the shoulders. Fruit quality and keeing quality good. It is a mid season variety.
19. Zardalu : This variety is indigenous to Murshidabad in West Bengal. Fruit size is medium, oblong to obliquely oblong and golden yellow in colour. Fruit quality is very good. Keeping quality is medium. It is a mid season variety.
Hybrid Varieties
i) Amarapali : This hybrid is from a cross of Dashehari x Neelum. It is dwarf, regular bearing and late maturing variety. The variety is suitable for high density planting as about 1600 plants may be planted in a hectare. It yields on an average 16 tonnes / hectare.
ii) Mallika : It is from a cross of Neelum x Dashehari. Its fruit is large in size, oblong elliptical and in shape cadmium yellow in colour. Fruit and keeping quality are good. It is a mid season variety.
iii) Arka Aruna : It is a hybrid between Baganpalli and Alphonso. It is dwarf regular bearing, precocious. Fruits are large having attractive skin colour with red blush free from spongy tissue.
iv) Arka Puneet : It is a hybrid between Alphonso and Banganpalli. It regular and prolific bearer. Fruits are medium sized having attractive skin colour with red blush and free from spongy tissue. Excellent keeping quality.
v) Arka Anmol : This hybrid is from a cron of Alphonso and Janardhan Pasand. It is regular bearer and good yielder. Fruits are medium sized having uniform yellow peel colour, excellent keeping quality and free from spongy tissue.
vi) Arka Neelkiran : It is a hybrid between Alphonso and Neelum. It is , regular bearering late season variety with medium sized fruits having attractive red blush free from spongy tissue.
vii) Ratna : This hybrid is from a cross of Neelum x Alphonso. Tree vigorous, precautions, fruits are medium sized, attractive in colour and free from spongy tissue.
viii) Sindhu : It is from a cross of Ratna x Alphonso. It is regular bearer, fruits medium sized, free from spongy tissue with high pulp to stone ratio and very thin and small stone.
ix) Au Rumani : It is from a cross of Rumani x Mulgoa. It is precocious, heavy and regular bearing with large fruits having yellow cadmium skin colour.
x) Manjeera : This hybrid is from a cross of Rumani x Neelum. It is dwarf, regular and prolific bearer with firm and fibre less flesh.
Other hybrid varieties released are Alfazali, Sundar Langra, Sabri, Jawahar, Neelphonso, Neeleshan, Neeleshwari and PKM2.
This site is developed for all who are interested in mangoes. For further questions/ information you can send comments or mail to
sskumar2129@gmail.com
VARIETIES: Characteristics of important Indian varieties, Hybrid Varieties
PORPAGATION : Inarching, Veneer grafting, Budding, Stone Epicotyl grafting, Soft-wood grafting, Air layering
PLANTING: Time of planting, Planting distance, Size of pits, Filling of pits, Planting of grafts, Training and pruning
FERTILIZERS: Quantity of fertilizer, Time of fertilizer application, Method of fertilizer application
IRRIGATION, INTERCULTURE, INTERCROPPING
REJUVENATION OF MANGO ORCHARD
DISEASES: Powdery mildew, Anthracnose, Die back , Phoma blight , Bacterial canker, Red rust , Sooty mould Postharvest Diseases
PESTS: Hopper, Mealy bug , Inflorescence midge, Fruitfly, Scale insects, Shoot borer, Bark-eating caterpillar, Stem borer, Shoot gall psylla, Leaf webber, Stone weevil
DISORDERS: Mango malformation, Biennial bearing, Fruit drop, Black tip, Clustering disorder in mango (‘Jhumka’)
MATURITY, HARVESTING, PACKAGINGSTORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION,
PROCESSING:Raw mango products Pickle, Amchoor, Slices, Green mango beverage:
Ripe mango products: Pulp, Beverages (Juice and Nectar), Squash, Slices, Mango Leather or Aam Papad
WASTE UTILIZATION
Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is the most important fruit of India. It is grown over an area of 1.23 million hectares in the country producing 10.99 million tonnes. It accounts for 22.1 per cent of total area (5.57 million ha) and 22.9 per cent of total production of fruits (47.94 million tonnes) in the country. Though Uttar Pradesh has the largest area of 0.27 million hectares under mango, Andhra Pradesh has the highest productivity of 12 tonnes per hectare. While Andhra Pradesh produces 3.07 million tonnes of mango, U.P., Bihar and Karnataka produce 2.39, 1.79 and 0.92 million tonnes, respectively. India ranks first among world’s mango producing countries accounting for 52.63 per cent of the total world’s mango production of 19 million tonnes.
CLIMATE
Mango is very well adapted to tropical and subtropical climates. It thrives well in almost all the regions of the country from sea level to an altitude of 1500 m, i.e., from Cape Comerin to Himalayas. However, it cannot be grown commercially in areas above 600 m. Temperature, rainfall, wind velocity and altitude are the main climatic factors which influence its growth and fruiting. It cannot stand severe frost, especially when the tree is young. High temperature by itself is not so injurious to mango, but in combination with low humidity and high winds, affects the trees adversely.
Most of the mango varieties thrive in places with good rainfall (75 to 375 cm per annum) and dry season. The distribution of rainfall is more important than its amount. Dry weather before blossoming is conducive to profuse flowering. Rain during flowering is detrimental to the crop as it interferes with pollination. However, rain during fruit development is good but heavy rains cause damage to ripening fruits. Strong winds and cyclones during the fruiting season can play havoc as they cause excessive fruit drop.
SOIL
Mango grows well on wide variety of soils, such as lateritic, alluvial, sandy loam and sandy. Although it grows very well in high to medium fertility soils, its cultivation can be made successful even in low fertility soils by appropriate management especially during early stages of growth. Very poor and stony soils on hill slopes should, however, be avoided. The loamy, alluvial, well drained, aerated and deep soils rich in organic matter with a pH range of 5.5 to 7.5 are most for mango cultivation. The extremely sandy, shallow, rocky, water-logged, heavy textured and alkaline or calcareous soils are not suitable for mango cultivation.
VARIETIES
There are more than thousand mango varieties in India. However, only about 30 varieties are grown on commercial scale in different states.Important mango varieties cultivated in different states of India
States
Varieties
Andhra Pradesh Banganpalli, Bangalora,Cherukurasam, Himayuddin, Suvarnarekha
Bihar Bombai, Langra, Fazri, Himsagar, Kishen Bhog, Sukul, Bathua
Goa Fernandin, Mankurad, Alphonso
Gujarat Alphonso, Kesar, Rajapuri, Vanraj
Haryana Dashehari, Langra, Bombay Green
Karnataka Alphonso, Bangalora, Mulgoa, Neelum, Pairi
Kerala Mundappa, Olour, Pairi
Madhya Pradesh Alphonso, Bombai, Langra and mostly seedling types
Maharashtra Alphonso, Kesar, Mankurad, Mulgoa, Pairi
Orissa Baneshan, Langra, Neelum, Suvarnarekha and mostly seedling types
Punjab Dashehari, Langra, Chausa
Tamil Nadu Banganpalli, Bangalora, Neelum, Rumani, Mulgoa
Uttar Pradesh Bombay Green, Dashehari, Fajri, Langra, Safeda Lucknow, Chausa
West Bengal Bombai, Himsagar, Kishan Bhog, Langra
Characteristics of important Indian varieties
1. Alphonso : This is the leading commercial variety of Maharashtra state and one of the choicest varieties of the country. This variety is known by different names in different regions, viz. Badami, Gundu, Khader, Appas, Happus and Kagdi Happus. The fruit of this variety is medium in size, ovate oblique in shape and orange yellow in colour. The fruit quality is excellent and keeping quality is good. It has been found good for canning purpose. It is a mid season variety
2. Bangalora : It is a commercial variety of south India. The fruit size is medium to large, its shape is oblong with necked base and colour is golden yellow. Fruit quality is poor. Keeping quality is very good. It is widely used for processing. It is a mid season variety.
3. Banganpalli: It is a commercial variety of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu and also known as Chapta, Safeda, Baneshan and Chaptai. Fruit is large in size and obliquely oval in shape. The colour of the fruit is golden yellow. Fruit quality and keeping quality are good. It is a mid season variety and is good for canning.
4. Bombai : It is a commercial variety from Bihar state. It is also known as Malda in West Bengal and Bihar. Fruit size is medium, shape ovate-oblique and colour yellow. Fruit quality and keeping quality are medium. It is an early season variety.
5. Bombay Green : It is commonly grown in north India due to its early ripening habit. It is also called Malda in Northern India. Fruit size is medium, shape ovate oblong and fruit colour is spinach green. Fruit quality is good and keeping quality is medium. It is a very early variety.
6. Dashehari : This variety derives its name from the village Dashehari near Lucknow. It is a leading commercial variety of north India and one of the best varieties of our country. The fruit size is medium, shape is oblong to oblong oblique and fruit colour is yellow. Fruit quality is excellent keeping quality is good. It is a mid season variety and is mainly used for table purpose.
7. Fajri : This variety is commonly grown in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal. Fruit is very large, obliquely oval in shape. Fruit colour is light chrome. Fruit quality and keeping quality are medium. This is a late season variety.
8. Fernnadin : This is one of the oldest varieties of Bombay. Some people think that this variety originated in Goa. Fruit size is medium to large, fruit shape is oval to obliquely oval and fruit colour is yellow with a red blush on shoulders. Fruit quality and keeping quality are medium. It is a late season variety mostly used for table purpose.
9. Himsagar : This variety is indigenous to Bengal. This is one of the choicest varieties of Bengal and has gained extensive popularity. Fruit is of medium size, ovate to ovate oblique. Fruit colour is yellow. Both fruit and keeping quality are good. It is an early variety.
10. Kesar : This is a leading variety of Gujarat with a red blush on the shoulders. Fruit size is medium, shape oblong and keeping quality is good. It is an early variety.
11. Kishen Bhog : This variety is indigenous to Murshidabad in West Bengal. Fruit size is medium, fruit shape is roundish oblique and fruit colour is yellow. Fruit quality and keeping quality are good. It is a mid season variety.
12. Langra : This variety is indigenous to Varanasi area of Uttar Pradesh. It is extensively grown in northern India. Fruit is of medium size, ovate shape and lettuce green colour. Fruit quality is good. Keeping quality is medium. It is a mid season variety.
13. Mankurad : This variety is of commercial importance in Goa and in the neighbouring Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra. The variety develops black spots on the skin in rainy season. Fruit is medium in size, ovate in shape and yellow in colour. Fruit quality is very good. Keeping quality is poor. It is a mid season variety.
14. Mulgoa : This is a commercial variety of southern India. It is quite popular among the lovers of mango owing to high quality of its fruit. Fruit is large in size, roundish oblique in shape and yellow in colour. Fruit quality is very good. Keeping quality is good. It is a late season variety.
15. Neelum : This is a commercial variety indigenous to Tamil Nadu. It is an ideal variety for transporting to distant places owing to its high keeping quality. Fruit is medium in size, ovate oblique in shape and saffron yellow in colour. Fruit quality is good and keeping quality is very good. It is a late season variety.
16. Chausa : This variety originated as a chance seedling in the orchard of a Talukadar of Sandila district Hardoi, U.P. It is commonly grown in northern parts of India due to its characteristic flavour and taste. Fruit is large in size, ovate to oval oblique in shape and light yellow in colour. Fruit quality is good keeping quality is medium. it is a late variety.
17. Suvarnarekha : This is a commercial variety of Visakhapatnam district of Andhra Pradesh. Other synonyms of this variety are Sundari, Lal Sundari. Fruit is medium in size and ovate oblong in shape. Colour of the fruit is light cadmium with a blush of jasper red. Fruit quality is medium and keeping quality is good. It is an early variety.
18. Vanraj : It is a highly prized variety of Vadodra district of Gujarat and fetches good returns. Fruit is medium in size, ovate oblong in shape and colour is deep chrome with a blush of jasper red on the shoulders. Fruit quality and keeing quality good. It is a mid season variety.
19. Zardalu : This variety is indigenous to Murshidabad in West Bengal. Fruit size is medium, oblong to obliquely oblong and golden yellow in colour. Fruit quality is very good. Keeping quality is medium. It is a mid season variety.
Hybrid Varieties
i) Amarapali : This hybrid is from a cross of Dashehari x Neelum. It is dwarf, regular bearing and late maturing variety. The variety is suitable for high density planting as about 1600 plants may be planted in a hectare. It yields on an average 16 tonnes / hectare.
ii) Mallika : It is from a cross of Neelum x Dashehari. Its fruit is large in size, oblong elliptical and in shape cadmium yellow in colour. Fruit and keeping quality are good. It is a mid season variety.
iii) Arka Aruna : It is a hybrid between Baganpalli and Alphonso. It is dwarf regular bearing, precocious. Fruits are large having attractive skin colour with red blush free from spongy tissue.
iv) Arka Puneet : It is a hybrid between Alphonso and Banganpalli. It regular and prolific bearer. Fruits are medium sized having attractive skin colour with red blush and free from spongy tissue. Excellent keeping quality.
v) Arka Anmol : This hybrid is from a cron of Alphonso and Janardhan Pasand. It is regular bearer and good yielder. Fruits are medium sized having uniform yellow peel colour, excellent keeping quality and free from spongy tissue.
vi) Arka Neelkiran : It is a hybrid between Alphonso and Neelum. It is , regular bearering late season variety with medium sized fruits having attractive red blush free from spongy tissue.
vii) Ratna : This hybrid is from a cross of Neelum x Alphonso. Tree vigorous, precautions, fruits are medium sized, attractive in colour and free from spongy tissue.
viii) Sindhu : It is from a cross of Ratna x Alphonso. It is regular bearer, fruits medium sized, free from spongy tissue with high pulp to stone ratio and very thin and small stone.
ix) Au Rumani : It is from a cross of Rumani x Mulgoa. It is precocious, heavy and regular bearing with large fruits having yellow cadmium skin colour.
x) Manjeera : This hybrid is from a cross of Rumani x Neelum. It is dwarf, regular and prolific bearer with firm and fibre less flesh.
Other hybrid varieties released are Alfazali, Sundar Langra, Sabri, Jawahar, Neelphonso, Neeleshan, Neeleshwari and PKM2.
BANANA CULTIVATION
Agricultural operations for the month . . .
PLANTING. . .
Preparation of land:
Plough the land thoroughly atleast for 3-4 times and add about 10 tonnes of well rotten FYM or Compost during last plough and mix it well or add 10-15 kg FYM/ Compost per pit of 60x60x60 cm dimension.
Selection of Suckers:
Select ‘Sword Suckers’ with broad corm with narrow sword like leaves, from viral, fungal and bacterial disease free mother plants.
The suckers should be 3-5 months old, uniform in size, weighing 1-1.5 kg for Nendran, Rasthali, Ney Poovan and Poovan banana varieties.
For long duration varieties like Karpuravalli and Red Banana, slightly big suckers weighing 1.5-2.0 kg should be used.
For planting of ‘Tissue Culture’ plants, the secondary hardened plant should be about 30 cm tall, 5 cm girth with atleast five fully opened healthy leaves and true to type.
Sucker Treatment and planting:
The selected suckers should be ‘pared’ by trimming of all the roots along with surface layers superficially to remove any rotten portion of the corm.
Dip the pared suckers in 0.2% Carbendazim (2g/litre of water) solution for about 15 –20 minutes as a prophylactic measure against Fusarium wilt disease.
Keep the treated suckers in shade overnight before planting. Plant the suckers in the center of the pit and press the soil around the suckers firmly.
Apply 40 g of Carbofuron granules per pit to protect the plants against nematode attack and irrigate the field thoroughly.
In case of tissue culture plants, one week before planting apply 10 g Carbofuron and 1.0 % bleaching powder or 0.2 % Emissan in 100 ml water as drench into the polythene bags to protect against nematode infestation and bacterial rot (Erwinia Rot) disease respectively.
CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS . . .
During First month
The soil around the plants should be pressed firmly for better and quick establishment of the plants.
Wherever necessary, ‘Gap Filling’ should be done to replace the un- sprouted as well as rotten suckers. Seeds of green manure crops viz., cowpea or sunnhemp be sown.
For additional income and also for effective land use efficiency, short duration crops such as onion, green gram, black gram, beans, radish, greens, marigold and short duration vegetables can be grown as intercrop.
Tomato, chilly and cucurbits should not be grown as intercrop since these crops harbour nematodes and aphids, which act as vector of virus spread.
Second Month
Green manures viz., cowpea or sunnhemp should be ploughed back in to the soil at flowering stage or about 40 days after sowing.
Slight digging and earthing up to keep the weeds under control.
For Fusarium wilt susceptible varieties like Rasthali, Karpuravalli, Ney Poovan, Monthan and Pachanadan, drench the soil around the plant with 0.2% Carbendazim as a prophylactic measure, or
Apply 30g Trichoderma viride or Pseudomonas flourescense along with FYM/compost 1 kg in the soil around the plant as a prophylactic measure for the control of wilt disease.
Third Month
Application of 40g of Carbofuron to control nematodes.
Digging and weeding.
Application of first dose of fertilizers @ 100:300:100 g Urea, Super Phosphate and MOP per plant in basins made about 30 cm away from the plant.
Fourth Month
Application of Azospirillum and phosphobacteria @ 30 g and Trichoderma viride @ 30g along with 5-10 kg FYM plant-1.
There should a gap of minimum 2-3 weeks between the application of chemical fertilizers and biofertilizers.
Periodical removal of side suckers by cutting them above the ground level and pouring 2 ml kerosene at the central core of the sucker.
If any virus affected plants are noticed in the field, remove and destroy it immediately and spray with any systemic insecticide to kill the insect vectors which spread the virus.
Fifth Month
Application of second dose of fertilizers @ 150:150 g Urea and MOP+ 300g neemcake per plant in the basins made about 45 cm away from the plant.
Removal of dried leaves.
Digging and weeding.
To cater the micronutrient need of the plant and to correct their deficiency, apply 50g agricultural lime and 25g magnesium sulphate per plant.
For Fusarium wilt susceptible varieties like Rasthali, Karpuravalli, Ney Poovan, Monthan and Pachanadan drench the soil around the plant with 0.2% Carbendazim as a prophylactic measure.
To prevent the egg laying and further attack of stem weevil, spray ‘Neemosol’ @12.5ml/litre or Chlorpyriphos @ 2.5ml/litre on the stem especially in Nendran, Red banana, Karpuravalli and Monthan varieties.
To monitor the corm and stem weevil, 2 ft long longitudinal stem trap @40 traps/acre can be placed at different places. The collected weevils are to be killed using kerosene.
Keep the banana fields as well as surrounding areas weed free and spray systemic insecticides to control the insect vectors.
Sixth Month
Digging and earthing up of soil around the plant.
Removal of the dried and diseased leaves and spraying of 0.1% Propiconazol (TILT) by thoroughly covering both the surfaces adding wetting agent with the spray fluid especially during winter and cool months for control of Sigatoka leaf spot diseases.
Yellowing of leaves which is a symptom of iron deficiency, spray 0.5% ferrous sulphate + 1.0% urea added with wetting agent on the leaves especially in high pH >8.5 and Calcareous soils.
To correct the deficiency of zinc, spray 0.5% zinc sulphate solution along with wetting agent.
Foliar application of 0.5 Borax is recommended to correct the deficiency.
Apply 30g Trichoderma viride or Pseudomonas flourescense in the soil around the plant as a prophylactic measure to control the wilt disease.
For controlling the stem weevil attack, using ‘Banana Injector’, inject 2ml of Monocrotophos (150 ml Monocrotophos mixed in 350 ml of water) at 2 and 4 feet height on opposite direction.
Seventh Month
Application of third dose of fertilizers @ 150:150 g Urea and MOP per plant in the basins made about 60 cm away from the plant.
Removal of the dried and diseased leaves and spraying of 0.1% Carbendazim or Calixin by thoroughly covering both the surfaces along with wetting agent.
Periodical removal of side suckers by cutting them above the ground level, scoop the core and pour 2 ml kerosene in the core.
Injection of 2ml of Monocrotophos using ‘Banana Injector’ at 2 and 4 feet height for the control of stem weevil.
Eighth Month
After flowering, only one healthy side sucker should be allowed for first ratoon and the remaining suckers should be killed using kerosene or uprooted.
Spraying of 0.1% Indofil by thoroughly covering both the surfaces.
After the emergence of the last hand, the male bud has to be removed leaving about 15 cm stalk from the last hand.
To prevent ‘cigar end rot’ disease, remove the pistil and perianth carefully from the fully emerged fingers and spray the bunch with Indofil M-45 @ 2.5 ml/litre.
Spray 2% Potassium Sulphate (20g/litre of water) solution with surfactant by thoroughly drenching the bunch and cover the bunch with 100 gauge thick white or blue polythene sleeves having 6% ventilation.
Ninth Month:
Thirty days after the first spray, give a second spray of 2% Potassium Sulphate (20g/litre of water) solution with surfactant by thoroughly drenching the bunch.
Provide casuarina pole or bamboo support to the plants for tall and heavy bearing bunches.
Plant population under different planting systems
S.No
Method of Planting
Spacing (m)
Plant Population/ ha
1
CONVENTIONAL PLANTING
i)
Dwarf Cavendish
1.5x1.5
4440
ii)
Robusta and Nendran
1.8x1.8
3080
iii)
Rasthali, Poovan, Karpuravalli, Monthan
2.1x2.1
2260
2.
HIGH DENSITY PLANTING
a)
Paired row planting system
i) Dwarf Cavendish
ii) Robusta, Grand Naine, Poovan,
Rasthali and Ney Poovan
1.2x1.2x2.0
1.5x1.5x2.0
5200
3800
b)
3 suckers/hill (Robusta, Nendran)
1.8x3.6
4500
Drip Water requirement at different growth stages of banana
Sl.
Crop growth stage
Duration (weeks)
Quantity of Water
(litre/plant)
1.
After planting / Ratoon
1-4
Flood irrigation
2.
Juvenile phase
5-9
8-10
3.
Critical growth stage
10-19
12
4.
Flower bud differentiation stage
20-32
16-20
5.
Shooting stage
33-37
20 and above*
6.
Bunch development stage
38-50
20 and above8
* Depending on the season
Weekly Fertigation Schedule for banana (g/ plant / application)
Weeks after Planting
Urea
Total (g/plant)
MOP
Total (g/plant)
9 to 18 week
(10 weeks)
15
150
8.0
80
19 to 30 week
(12 weeks)
10
120
10
120
31 to 40 week
(10 weeks)
7.0
70
12
120
41 to 46 week
(5 weeks)
Nil
Nil
10
50
Total
----
340
----
375
Weekly Fertigation Schedule for banana (g/ plant / application)
Weeks after Planting
Urea
Total (g/plant)
MOP
Total (g/plant)
9 to 18 week
(10 weeks)
15
150
8.0
80
19 to 30 week
(12 weeks)
10
120
10
120
31 to 40 week
(10 weeks)
7.0
70
12
120
41 to 46 week
(5 weeks)
Nil
Nil
10
50
Total
----
340
----
375
PLANTING. . .
Preparation of land:
Plough the land thoroughly atleast for 3-4 times and add about 10 tonnes of well rotten FYM or Compost during last plough and mix it well or add 10-15 kg FYM/ Compost per pit of 60x60x60 cm dimension.
Selection of Suckers:
Select ‘Sword Suckers’ with broad corm with narrow sword like leaves, from viral, fungal and bacterial disease free mother plants.
The suckers should be 3-5 months old, uniform in size, weighing 1-1.5 kg for Nendran, Rasthali, Ney Poovan and Poovan banana varieties.
For long duration varieties like Karpuravalli and Red Banana, slightly big suckers weighing 1.5-2.0 kg should be used.
For planting of ‘Tissue Culture’ plants, the secondary hardened plant should be about 30 cm tall, 5 cm girth with atleast five fully opened healthy leaves and true to type.
Sucker Treatment and planting:
The selected suckers should be ‘pared’ by trimming of all the roots along with surface layers superficially to remove any rotten portion of the corm.
Dip the pared suckers in 0.2% Carbendazim (2g/litre of water) solution for about 15 –20 minutes as a prophylactic measure against Fusarium wilt disease.
Keep the treated suckers in shade overnight before planting. Plant the suckers in the center of the pit and press the soil around the suckers firmly.
Apply 40 g of Carbofuron granules per pit to protect the plants against nematode attack and irrigate the field thoroughly.
In case of tissue culture plants, one week before planting apply 10 g Carbofuron and 1.0 % bleaching powder or 0.2 % Emissan in 100 ml water as drench into the polythene bags to protect against nematode infestation and bacterial rot (Erwinia Rot) disease respectively.
CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS . . .
During First month
The soil around the plants should be pressed firmly for better and quick establishment of the plants.
Wherever necessary, ‘Gap Filling’ should be done to replace the un- sprouted as well as rotten suckers. Seeds of green manure crops viz., cowpea or sunnhemp be sown.
For additional income and also for effective land use efficiency, short duration crops such as onion, green gram, black gram, beans, radish, greens, marigold and short duration vegetables can be grown as intercrop.
Tomato, chilly and cucurbits should not be grown as intercrop since these crops harbour nematodes and aphids, which act as vector of virus spread.
Second Month
Green manures viz., cowpea or sunnhemp should be ploughed back in to the soil at flowering stage or about 40 days after sowing.
Slight digging and earthing up to keep the weeds under control.
For Fusarium wilt susceptible varieties like Rasthali, Karpuravalli, Ney Poovan, Monthan and Pachanadan, drench the soil around the plant with 0.2% Carbendazim as a prophylactic measure, or
Apply 30g Trichoderma viride or Pseudomonas flourescense along with FYM/compost 1 kg in the soil around the plant as a prophylactic measure for the control of wilt disease.
Third Month
Application of 40g of Carbofuron to control nematodes.
Digging and weeding.
Application of first dose of fertilizers @ 100:300:100 g Urea, Super Phosphate and MOP per plant in basins made about 30 cm away from the plant.
Fourth Month
Application of Azospirillum and phosphobacteria @ 30 g and Trichoderma viride @ 30g along with 5-10 kg FYM plant-1.
There should a gap of minimum 2-3 weeks between the application of chemical fertilizers and biofertilizers.
Periodical removal of side suckers by cutting them above the ground level and pouring 2 ml kerosene at the central core of the sucker.
If any virus affected plants are noticed in the field, remove and destroy it immediately and spray with any systemic insecticide to kill the insect vectors which spread the virus.
Fifth Month
Application of second dose of fertilizers @ 150:150 g Urea and MOP+ 300g neemcake per plant in the basins made about 45 cm away from the plant.
Removal of dried leaves.
Digging and weeding.
To cater the micronutrient need of the plant and to correct their deficiency, apply 50g agricultural lime and 25g magnesium sulphate per plant.
For Fusarium wilt susceptible varieties like Rasthali, Karpuravalli, Ney Poovan, Monthan and Pachanadan drench the soil around the plant with 0.2% Carbendazim as a prophylactic measure.
To prevent the egg laying and further attack of stem weevil, spray ‘Neemosol’ @12.5ml/litre or Chlorpyriphos @ 2.5ml/litre on the stem especially in Nendran, Red banana, Karpuravalli and Monthan varieties.
To monitor the corm and stem weevil, 2 ft long longitudinal stem trap @40 traps/acre can be placed at different places. The collected weevils are to be killed using kerosene.
Keep the banana fields as well as surrounding areas weed free and spray systemic insecticides to control the insect vectors.
Sixth Month
Digging and earthing up of soil around the plant.
Removal of the dried and diseased leaves and spraying of 0.1% Propiconazol (TILT) by thoroughly covering both the surfaces adding wetting agent with the spray fluid especially during winter and cool months for control of Sigatoka leaf spot diseases.
Yellowing of leaves which is a symptom of iron deficiency, spray 0.5% ferrous sulphate + 1.0% urea added with wetting agent on the leaves especially in high pH >8.5 and Calcareous soils.
To correct the deficiency of zinc, spray 0.5% zinc sulphate solution along with wetting agent.
Foliar application of 0.5 Borax is recommended to correct the deficiency.
Apply 30g Trichoderma viride or Pseudomonas flourescense in the soil around the plant as a prophylactic measure to control the wilt disease.
For controlling the stem weevil attack, using ‘Banana Injector’, inject 2ml of Monocrotophos (150 ml Monocrotophos mixed in 350 ml of water) at 2 and 4 feet height on opposite direction.
Seventh Month
Application of third dose of fertilizers @ 150:150 g Urea and MOP per plant in the basins made about 60 cm away from the plant.
Removal of the dried and diseased leaves and spraying of 0.1% Carbendazim or Calixin by thoroughly covering both the surfaces along with wetting agent.
Periodical removal of side suckers by cutting them above the ground level, scoop the core and pour 2 ml kerosene in the core.
Injection of 2ml of Monocrotophos using ‘Banana Injector’ at 2 and 4 feet height for the control of stem weevil.
Eighth Month
After flowering, only one healthy side sucker should be allowed for first ratoon and the remaining suckers should be killed using kerosene or uprooted.
Spraying of 0.1% Indofil by thoroughly covering both the surfaces.
After the emergence of the last hand, the male bud has to be removed leaving about 15 cm stalk from the last hand.
To prevent ‘cigar end rot’ disease, remove the pistil and perianth carefully from the fully emerged fingers and spray the bunch with Indofil M-45 @ 2.5 ml/litre.
Spray 2% Potassium Sulphate (20g/litre of water) solution with surfactant by thoroughly drenching the bunch and cover the bunch with 100 gauge thick white or blue polythene sleeves having 6% ventilation.
Ninth Month:
Thirty days after the first spray, give a second spray of 2% Potassium Sulphate (20g/litre of water) solution with surfactant by thoroughly drenching the bunch.
Provide casuarina pole or bamboo support to the plants for tall and heavy bearing bunches.
Plant population under different planting systems
S.No
Method of Planting
Spacing (m)
Plant Population/ ha
1
CONVENTIONAL PLANTING
i)
Dwarf Cavendish
1.5x1.5
4440
ii)
Robusta and Nendran
1.8x1.8
3080
iii)
Rasthali, Poovan, Karpuravalli, Monthan
2.1x2.1
2260
2.
HIGH DENSITY PLANTING
a)
Paired row planting system
i) Dwarf Cavendish
ii) Robusta, Grand Naine, Poovan,
Rasthali and Ney Poovan
1.2x1.2x2.0
1.5x1.5x2.0
5200
3800
b)
3 suckers/hill (Robusta, Nendran)
1.8x3.6
4500
Drip Water requirement at different growth stages of banana
Sl.
Crop growth stage
Duration (weeks)
Quantity of Water
(litre/plant)
1.
After planting / Ratoon
1-4
Flood irrigation
2.
Juvenile phase
5-9
8-10
3.
Critical growth stage
10-19
12
4.
Flower bud differentiation stage
20-32
16-20
5.
Shooting stage
33-37
20 and above*
6.
Bunch development stage
38-50
20 and above8
* Depending on the season
Weekly Fertigation Schedule for banana (g/ plant / application)
Weeks after Planting
Urea
Total (g/plant)
MOP
Total (g/plant)
9 to 18 week
(10 weeks)
15
150
8.0
80
19 to 30 week
(12 weeks)
10
120
10
120
31 to 40 week
(10 weeks)
7.0
70
12
120
41 to 46 week
(5 weeks)
Nil
Nil
10
50
Total
----
340
----
375
Weekly Fertigation Schedule for banana (g/ plant / application)
Weeks after Planting
Urea
Total (g/plant)
MOP
Total (g/plant)
9 to 18 week
(10 weeks)
15
150
8.0
80
19 to 30 week
(12 weeks)
10
120
10
120
31 to 40 week
(10 weeks)
7.0
70
12
120
41 to 46 week
(5 weeks)
Nil
Nil
10
50
Total
----
340
----
375
Agricultural operations for the month . . .
PLANTING. . .
Preparation of land:
Plough the land thoroughly atleast for 3-4 times and add about 10 tonnes of well rotten FYM or Compost during last plough and mix it well or add 10-15 kg FYM/ Compost per pit of 60x60x60 cm dimension.
Selection of Suckers:
Select ‘Sword Suckers’ with broad corm with narrow sword like leaves, from viral, fungal and bacterial disease free mother plants.
The suckers should be 3-5 months old, uniform in size, weighing 1-1.5 kg for Nendran, Rasthali, Ney Poovan and Poovan banana varieties.
For long duration varieties like Karpuravalli and Red Banana, slightly big suckers weighing 1.5-2.0 kg should be used.
For planting of ‘Tissue Culture’ plants, the secondary hardened plant should be about 30 cm tall, 5 cm girth with atleast five fully opened healthy leaves and true to type.
Sucker Treatment and planting:
The selected suckers should be ‘pared’ by trimming of all the roots along with surface layers superficially to remove any rotten portion of the corm.
Dip the pared suckers in 0.2% Carbendazim (2g/litre of water) solution for about 15 –20 minutes as a prophylactic measure against Fusarium wilt disease.
Keep the treated suckers in shade overnight before planting. Plant the suckers in the center of the pit and press the soil around the suckers firmly.
Apply 40 g of Carbofuron granules per pit to protect the plants against nematode attack and irrigate the field thoroughly.
In case of tissue culture plants, one week before planting apply 10 g Carbofuron and 1.0 % bleaching powder or 0.2 % Emissan in 100 ml water as drench into the polythene bags to protect against nematode infestation and bacterial rot (Erwinia Rot) disease respectively.
CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS . . .
During First month
The soil around the plants should be pressed firmly for better and quick establishment of the plants.
Wherever necessary, ‘Gap Filling’ should be done to replace the un- sprouted as well as rotten suckers. Seeds of green manure crops viz., cowpea or sunnhemp be sown.
For additional income and also for effective land use efficiency, short duration crops such as onion, green gram, black gram, beans, radish, greens, marigold and short duration vegetables can be grown as intercrop.
Tomato, chilly and cucurbits should not be grown as intercrop since these crops harbour nematodes and aphids, which act as vector of virus spread.
Second Month
Green manures viz., cowpea or sunnhemp should be ploughed back in to the soil at flowering stage or about 40 days after sowing.
Slight digging and earthing up to keep the weeds under control.
For Fusarium wilt susceptible varieties like Rasthali, Karpuravalli, Ney Poovan, Monthan and Pachanadan, drench the soil around the plant with 0.2% Carbendazim as a prophylactic measure, or
Apply 30g Trichoderma viride or Pseudomonas flourescense along with FYM/compost 1 kg in the soil around the plant as a prophylactic measure for the control of wilt disease.
Third Month
Application of 40g of Carbofuron to control nematodes.
Digging and weeding.
Application of first dose of fertilizers @ 100:300:100 g Urea, Super Phosphate and MOP per plant in basins made about 30 cm away from the plant.
Fourth Month
Application of Azospirillum and phosphobacteria @ 30 g and Trichoderma viride @ 30g along with 5-10 kg FYM plant-1.
There should a gap of minimum 2-3 weeks between the application of chemical fertilizers and biofertilizers.
Periodical removal of side suckers by cutting them above the ground level and pouring 2 ml kerosene at the central core of the sucker.
If any virus affected plants are noticed in the field, remove and destroy it immediately and spray with any systemic insecticide to kill the insect vectors which spread the virus.
Fifth Month
Application of second dose of fertilizers @ 150:150 g Urea and MOP+ 300g neemcake per plant in the basins made about 45 cm away from the plant.
Removal of dried leaves.
Digging and weeding.
To cater the micronutrient need of the plant and to correct their deficiency, apply 50g agricultural lime and 25g magnesium sulphate per plant.
For Fusarium wilt susceptible varieties like Rasthali, Karpuravalli, Ney Poovan, Monthan and Pachanadan drench the soil around the plant with 0.2% Carbendazim as a prophylactic measure.
To prevent the egg laying and further attack of stem weevil, spray ‘Neemosol’ @12.5ml/litre or Chlorpyriphos @ 2.5ml/litre on the stem especially in Nendran, Red banana, Karpuravalli and Monthan varieties.
To monitor the corm and stem weevil, 2 ft long longitudinal stem trap @40 traps/acre can be placed at different places. The collected weevils are to be killed using kerosene.
Keep the banana fields as well as surrounding areas weed free and spray systemic insecticides to control the insect vectors.
Sixth Month
Digging and earthing up of soil around the plant.
Removal of the dried and diseased leaves and spraying of 0.1% Propiconazol (TILT) by thoroughly covering both the surfaces adding wetting agent with the spray fluid especially during winter and cool months for control of Sigatoka leaf spot diseases.
Yellowing of leaves which is a symptom of iron deficiency, spray 0.5% ferrous sulphate + 1.0% urea added with wetting agent on the leaves especially in high pH >8.5 and Calcareous soils.
To correct the deficiency of zinc, spray 0.5% zinc sulphate solution along with wetting agent.
Foliar application of 0.5 Borax is recommended to correct the deficiency.
Apply 30g Trichoderma viride or Pseudomonas flourescense in the soil around the plant as a prophylactic measure to control the wilt disease.
For controlling the stem weevil attack, using ‘Banana Injector’, inject 2ml of Monocrotophos (150 ml Monocrotophos mixed in 350 ml of water) at 2 and 4 feet height on opposite direction.
Seventh Month
Application of third dose of fertilizers @ 150:150 g Urea and MOP per plant in the basins made about 60 cm away from the plant.
Removal of the dried and diseased leaves and spraying of 0.1% Carbendazim or Calixin by thoroughly covering both the surfaces along with wetting agent.
Periodical removal of side suckers by cutting them above the ground level, scoop the core and pour 2 ml kerosene in the core.
Injection of 2ml of Monocrotophos using ‘Banana Injector’ at 2 and 4 feet height for the control of stem weevil.
Eighth Month
After flowering, only one healthy side sucker should be allowed for first ratoon and the remaining suckers should be killed using kerosene or uprooted.
Spraying of 0.1% Indofil by thoroughly covering both the surfaces.
After the emergence of the last hand, the male bud has to be removed leaving about 15 cm stalk from the last hand.
To prevent ‘cigar end rot’ disease, remove the pistil and perianth carefully from the fully emerged fingers and spray the bunch with Indofil M-45 @ 2.5 ml/litre.
Spray 2% Potassium Sulphate (20g/litre of water) solution with surfactant by thoroughly drenching the bunch and cover the bunch with 100 gauge thick white or blue polythene sleeves having 6% ventilation.
Ninth Month:
Thirty days after the first spray, give a second spray of 2% Potassium Sulphate (20g/litre of water) solution with surfactant by thoroughly drenching the bunch.
Provide casuarina pole or bamboo support to the plants for tall and heavy bearing bunches.
Plant population under different planting systems
S.No
Method of Planting
Spacing (m)
Plant Population/ ha
1
CONVENTIONAL PLANTING
i)
Dwarf Cavendish
1.5x1.5
4440
ii)
Robusta and Nendran
1.8x1.8
3080
iii)
Rasthali, Poovan, Karpuravalli, Monthan
2.1x2.1
2260
2.
HIGH DENSITY PLANTING
a)
Paired row planting system
i) Dwarf Cavendish
ii) Robusta, Grand Naine, Poovan,
Rasthali and Ney Poovan
1.2x1.2x2.0
1.5x1.5x2.0
5200
3800
b)
3 suckers/hill (Robusta, Nendran)
1.8x3.6
4500
Drip Water requirement at different growth stages of banana
Sl.
Crop growth stage
Duration (weeks)
Quantity of Water
(litre/plant)
1.
After planting / Ratoon
1-4
Flood irrigation
2.
Juvenile phase
5-9
8-10
3.
Critical growth stage
10-19
12
4.
Flower bud differentiation stage
20-32
16-20
5.
Shooting stage
33-37
20 and above*
6.
Bunch development stage
38-50
20 and above8
* Depending on the season
Weekly Fertigation Schedule for banana (g/ plant / application)
Weeks after Planting
Urea
Total (g/plant)
MOP
Total (g/plant)
9 to 18 week
(10 weeks)
15
150
8.0
80
19 to 30 week
(12 weeks)
10
120
10
120
31 to 40 week
(10 weeks)
7.0
70
12
120
41 to 46 week
(5 weeks)
Nil
Nil
10
50
Total
----
340
----
375
Weekly Fertigation Schedule for banana (g/ plant / application)
Weeks after Planting
Urea
Total (g/plant)
MOP
Total (g/plant)
9 to 18 week
(10 weeks)
15
150
8.0
80
19 to 30 week
(12 weeks)
10
120
10
120
31 to 40 week
(10 weeks)
7.0
70
12
120
41 to 46 week
(5 weeks)
Nil
Nil
10
50
Total
----
340
----
375
MANGO DISEASE
Mangoes in India . . . . .
DISEASES: Powdery mildew, Anthracnose, Die back , Phoma blight , Bacterial canker, Red rust , Sooty mould Postharvest Diseases
PESTS: Hopper, Mealy bug , Inflorescence midge, Fruitfly, Scale insects, Shoot borer, Bark-eating caterpillar, Stem borer, Shoot gall psylla, Leaf webber, Stone weevil
DISORDERS: Mango malformation, Biennial bearing, Fruit drop, Black tip, Clustering disorder in mango (‘Jhumka’) | Home |Mango Site |
DISEASES
Mango suffers from several diseases at all stages of its life. All the parts of the plant, namely, trunk, branch, twig, leaf, petiole, flower and fruit are attacked by a number of pathogens including fungi, bacteria and algae. They cause several kinds of rot, die back, anthracnose, scab, necrosis, blotch, spots, mildew, etc. Some of these diseases like powdery mildew are of great economic importance as they cause heavy losses in mango production. Major diseases of mango and their control measures are discussed below.
a) Powdery mildew (Oidium mangiferae Berthet) : Powdery mildew is one of the most serious diseases of mango affecting almost all the varieties, It occurs up to latitude of 40o North and South of the equator. It may persist for longer period at an elevation of 600-1200 meters, in many African countries, south of the Sahara, the middle East, Southern Asia and America : from the Southern United States to Peru and Brazil.
The disease is reported to cause approximately 20 per cent crop loss in Maharashtra state alone. Sometimes, as high as 70-80 per cent crop loss has been recorded on individual plant basis.
The characteristic symptom of the disease is the white superficial powdery fungal growth on leaves, stalks of panicles, flowers and young fruits. The affected flowers and fruits drop pre-maturely reducing the crop load considerably or might even preven the fruit set. Rains or mists accompanied by cooler nights during flowering are congenial for the disease spread. The fungus parasitizes young tissues of all parts of the inflorescence, leaves and fruits.
Control : Following three sprays of fungicides at 15 days interval recommended for effective control of the disease :
Wettable sulphur 0.2 per cent (2 g Sulfex / lit. water).
Tridemorph 0.1 per cent ( 1 ml Calixin / lit. water).
Dinocap 0.1 per cent (1 ml / g Karathane / lit. water).
b) Anthracnose (Colletotrichum state of Glomerella cingulata Ston, Spaull and Schrenk) : The anthracnose disease is of widespread occurrence. The disease causes serious losses to young shoots, flowers and fruits under favourable climatic conditions of high humidity, frequent rains and a temperature of 24-32oC. It is also affects fruits during storage. The disease produces leaf spot, blossom blight, withertip, twig blight and fruit rot symptoms. Tender shoots and foliage are easily affected which ultimately cause ‘die back’ of young branches. Older twigs may also be infected through wounds which in severe cases may be fatal.
Depending on the prevailing weather conditions blossom blight may vary in severity from slight to a heavy infection of the panicles. Black spots develop on panicles as well as on fruits. Severe infection destroys the entire inflorescence resulting in no setting of fruits. Young infected fruits develop black spots, shrivel and drop off. Fruits infected at mature stage carry the fungus into storage and cause considerable loss during storage, transit and marketing. The fungus perpetuates on twigs and leaves of mango or other hosts. Varietal differences in susceptibility have been noted in India. In Kerala, maximum damage was observed on Neelum, whereas variety Edward was reported to be resistant. Since the fungus has a long saprophytic survival ability on dead twigs, the diseased twigs should be pruned and burnt along with fallen leaves for reducing the inoculum potential.
Control: Trees may be sprayed twice with Bavistin (0.1%) at 15 days interval during flowering to control blossom infection. Spraying of copper fungicides (0.3%) is recommended for the control of foliar infection.
c) Die back (Botryodiplodia theobromae Pat.) : Die back is one of the serious diseases of mango. The disease is prevalent in Rajasthan, Delhi, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Haryana, Orissa, Gujrat, Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh. The disease on the tree may be noticed at any time of the year but it is most conspicuous during Oct.-Nov. The disease is characterized by drying of twigs and branches followed by complete defoliation, which gives the tree an appearance of scorching by fire. The onset of die back becomes evident by discolouration and darkening of the bark. The dark area advances and young green twigs start withering first at the base and then extending outwards along the veins of leaf edges. The affected leaf turns brown and its margins roll upwards. At this stage, the twig or branch dies, shrivels and falls. This may be accompanied by exudation of gum. In old branches, brown streaking of vascular tissue is seen on splitting it longitudinally. The areas of cambium and phloem show brown discolouration and yellow gum like substance is found in some of the cells.
Control : (i) Prune the diseased twigs and spray with copper oxychloride (0.3%) on infected trees. Pruning should be done in such a way that the twigs are removed 2-3 inches below the affected portion. (ii) In small plants, pruning of twigs is followed by pasting of copper oxychloride.
d) Phoma blight (Phoma glomerata (Cords) Woll. Hochapf)
Phoma blight, a new disease of mango, was first reported at Central Mango Research Station, Lucknow. The disease was later detected in mango growing belt around Lucknow region. It is now gaining economic importance.
The symptoms of the disease are noticeable only on old leaves. Initially, the lesions are angular, minute, irregular, yellow to light brown, scattered over leaf lamina. As the lesions enlarge, their colour changes from brown to cinnamon and they become almost irregular. Fully developed spots are characterized by dark margins and dull grey necrotic centres. In case of severe infection such spots coalesce forming patches measuring 3.5-13 cm in size, resulting in complete withering and defoliation of infected leaves.
Control : The disease could be kept under control by spray of copper oxychloride (0.3%) just after the appearance of the disease and subsequent sprays at 20 day intervals.
e) Bacterial canker (Xanthomonas campestris pv. mangiferaeindicae) : Canker disease of mango, caused by a bacterium, is prevalent in Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, U.P., Bihar, Delhi, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh and probably in several other mango growing areas. Besides being pathogenic on several varieties of mango, the organism is capable of infecting wild mango, cashew nut and weeds as well. The disease causes fruit drop (10-70%), yield loss (10-85%) and storage rot (5-100%). Many commercial cultivars of mango including Langra, Dashehari, Amrapali, Mallika, and Totapuri are susceptible to this disease.
The disease is found on leaves, petioles, twigs, branches and fruits, initially producing water-soaked lesions and later turning into typical cankers. The disease first appears as minute water-soaked irregular lesions on any part of leaf or leaf lamina. The lesions are light yellow in colour but with age, enlarge and turn dark brown to black. They become angular, cankerous and raised, and are surrounded by chlorotic halos. Several lesions coalesce to form irregular necrotic cankerous patches. In severe infections the leaves turn yellow and drop off. Cankerous lesions appear on petioles, twigs and young fruits. The water soaked lesions also develop on fruits which later turn dark brown to black. They often burst open, releasing a highly contagious gummy ooze containg bacterial cells. The fresh lesions on branches and twigs are water soaked which later become raised and dark brown in colour with longitudinal cracks but without any ooze.
Control :
Seedling certification, inspection and orchard sanitation.
Three sprays of streptocycline (100 ppm) or Agrimycin-100 (100 ppm) after first visual symptom at 10-days intervals.
Monthly sprays of Bavistin (1000 ppm) or copper oxychloride (3000 ppm) were also found effective.
Precautions: Do not wait for appearance of the disease. The key to success for full control is to start application of fungicides before the infection has established.
f) Red rust ( Cephaleuros virescens Kunze) : Red rust disease, caused by an alga, has been observed in mango growing areas. The algal attack causes reduction in photosynthetic activity and defoliation of leaves thereby lowering vitality of the host plant.
The disease can easily be recognized by the rusty red spots mainly on leaves and sometimes on petioles and bark of young twigs and is epiphytic in nature. The spots are greenish grey in colour and velvety in texture. Later, they turn reddish brown. The circular and slightly elevated spots sometimes coalesce to form larger and irregular spots.
The disease is more common in closely planted orchards. Fruiting bodies of the alga are formed in humid atmosphere. The zoospores formed by the sporangia initiate fresh infections. Stem entry is achieved by way of cracks. The affected areas crack and scale off. In severe infection the bark becomes thickened, twigs get enlarged but remain stunted and the foliage becomes sparse and finally dries up.
Control : Two to three sprays of copper oxychloride (0.3%) is effective in controlling the disease.
g) Sooty mould (Meliola mangiferae) : The disease is common in the orchards where mealy bug, scale insect and hopper are not controlled efficiently. The disease in the field is recognis by the presence of a black velvety coating, i.e., sooty mould on the leaf surface. In severe cases the trees turn completely black due to the presence of mould over the entire surface of twigs and leaves. The severity of infection depends on the honey dew secretion by the above said insects. Honey dew secretions from insects sticks to the leaf surface and provide necessary medium for fungal growth. The fungus is essentially saprophytic and is non-pathogenic because it does not derive nutrients from the host tissues. Although no direct damage is caused by the fungus, the photosynthetic activity of the leaf is adversely affected due to blockage of stomata.
Control
Pruning of affected branches and their prompt destruction prevents the spread of the disease.
Spraying of 2 per cent starch is found effective.
It could also be controlled by spray of Nottasul + Metacin + gumacasea (0.2% + 0.1% + 0.3%).
B. Postharvest Diseases : The mango fruit is susceptible tomany postharvest diseases caused by anthracnose (C. gloeosporioides) and stem end rot (L. theobromae) during storage under ambient condtions or even at low temperature. Aspergillus rot is another postharvest disease of mango.
Control : Preharvest sprays of fungicides could control the diseases caused by latents infection of these fungi. Postharvest dip treatment of fruits with fungicides could also control the diseases during storage. The following treatments are suggested.
(i) Three sprays of carbendazim (0.1%) orthiophante-methyl (0.1%) at 15 days interval should be done in such a way that the last spray falls 15 days prior to harvest.
(ii) Postharvest dip treatment of fruits in carbendazim (0.1%) in hot water at 52+1oC for 15 minutes.
PESTS
More than 492 species of insects, 17 species of mites and 26 species of nematodes have been reported to be infesting mango trees, about 45 per cent of which have been reported from India. Almost a dozen of them have been found damaging the crop to a considerable extent causing severe losses and, therefore, may be termed as major pests of mango. These are hopper, mealy bug, inflorescence midge, fruitfly, scale insect, shoot borer, leaf webber and stone weevil. Of these, insects infesting the crop during flowering and fruiting periods cause more severe damage. The insects other than those indicated above are considered as less injurious to mango crop and are placed in the category of minor pests. A brief description of the biology and control of major pests of mango is given below.
a) Hopper : Of all the mango pests, hopper is considered as the most serious and widespread pest throughout the country. Idioscopus clypealis Lethierry, Idioscopus nitidulus (Walker)and Amritodus atkinsoni Lethierry are the most common and destructive species of hoppers which cause heavy damage to mango crop. Large number of nymphs and adult insects puncture and suck the sap of tender parts, thereby reducing the vigour of the plants. Heavy puncturing and continuos draining of the sap cause curling and drying of the infested tissue. They also damage the crop by secreting a sweet sticky substance which encourages the development of the fungus Maliola mangiferae, commonly known as sooty mould which affects adversely the photosynthetic activities of the leaves. A low population of hoppers has been recorded in mango orchards throughout the year but it shoots up during February-April and June-August. Shade and high humidity conditions are favourable for their multiplication. Such conditions usually prevail in old, neglected and closely planted orchards.
The female hoppers lay 100-200 eggs on mid rib of tender leaves, buds and inflorescence. In summers the total life cycle occupies 2-3 weeks.
Control
a) Chemical : Three sprays of 0.15 per cent Carbaryl or 0.04 per cent Monocrotophos or 0.05 per cent Phosphomidon or 0.05 per cent Methyl Parathion have been found very useful in controlling the pest population. First spray should be given at the early stage of panicle formation. The second spray at full length stage of panicles but before full bloom and the third spray after the fruits are set and have attained pea stage are recommended.
b) Biological : Biological control agents such as the predators Mallada boninensis and Chrysopa lacciperda, the egg parasite Polynema sp. and a preparation of the fungus Beauveria bassiana are the important useful bioagents to control this pest.
c) Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
The continuous use of pesticides though control the pests but pose some other serious problems like killing of pollinators and natural enemies, development of resistance to insecticides and residues which are on fruits hazardous to human population. Besides, the high cost of pesticides, labour and maintenance of equipments are other limiting factors in pest control. Integrated pest management is gaining momentum to take care of these problems. To manage mango hopper pest, avoid dense planting and keep the orchard clean by regular ploughing and removal of weeds. Pruning of overcrowding and over lapping branches should be done in the month of December. Chemical spray is to be minimized necessary. Neem products may be included in the management schedule of the pest. The use of insect growth regulator Buprofezin (0.0125 %) is also suggested as one of the sprays.
Mealy bug : It is another major pest of mango in India and is widely distributed all along the Indo-gangetic plain. Drosicha mangiferae Green is the most common mealy bug and causes severe damage to mango crop throughout the country. Nymphs and adults suck the plant sap and reduce the vigour of the plant. Excessive and continuous draining of plant sap causes wilting and finally drying of infested tissue. They also secrete honey dew, a sticky substance, which encourages the development of a fungus Maliola mangiferae, termed as sooty mould.
The adult male is winged and small, female is bigger and wingless. The female, after copulation, crawl down the tree in the month of April-May and enter in the cracks in the soil for laying eggs in large numbers encased in white egg sacs. The eggs lie in diapause state in the soil till the return of the favourable conditions in the month of November - December. Just after hatching, the minute newly hatched pink to brown coloured nymphs crawl up the tree. After climbing up the tree they start sucking the sap of tender plant parts. They are considered more important because they infest the crop during the flowering season and if the control measures are not taken timely , the crop may be destroyed completely.
Control
(i) Mechanical : Polythene (400 gauge) bands of 25 cm width fastened around the tree trunk have been found effective barrier to stop the ascent of nymphs to the trees. The band should be fastened well in advance before the hatching of eggs, i.e., around November - December.
(ii) Chemical : Application of 250 g per tree of Methyl Parathion dust 2 per cent or Aldrin dust 10 per cent in the soil around the trunk kills the newly hatched nymphs which come in contact with the chemical.
Spraying of 0.05 per cent Monocrotophos or 0.2 per cent Carbaryl or 0.05 per cent Methyl Parathion have been found useful in controlling early instar nymphs of the mealy bug.
(iii) Biological : Menochilus sexmaculatus, Rodolia fumida and Sumnius renardi are important predators in controlling the nymphs. The entomogenous fungus Beauveria bassiana is found to be an effective bioagent in controlling the nymphs of the mealy bug.
(iv) Integrated Pest Management (IPM) : The IPM schedule of mealy bug is very important and useful if timely operations are done. Flooding of orchards with water in the month of October kills the eggs. Ploughing the orchards in the month of November exposes the eggs to sun’s heat. In the middle of December, 400 gauge alkathene sheet of 25 cm width may be fastened to the tree trunk besides raking the soil around the tree trunk and mixing of 2 per cent Methyl Parathion dust. The dust may also be sprinkled below the atkathene band on the tree. The congregated nymphs below the band may be killed by any of the suggested insecticides. The above IPM schedule holds promise to control the mealy bug but spraying of neem product and the spores of the fungus Beauveria bassiana will further ensure the reduction of the pest population.
Inflorescence midge : The mango inflorescence midge, Erosomyia indica Grover Diptera : cecidomyiidae) is another major pest of mango. Recently, this pest has become very serious in certain pockets of Uttar Pradesh causing serious damage to mango crop by attacking both the inflorescence and the small fruits. The adult midge are harmless minute flies which are short lived and die within 24 hours of emergence after copulation and oviposition. The flies lay eggs singly on floral parts like tender inflorescence axis, newly set fruit or tender leaves encircling the inflorescence. The eggs hatch within 2-3 days. Upon hatching, the minute maggots penetrate the tender parts on which the eggs have been laid and feed on them. The floral parts finally dry up and are shed. The larval period varies from 7-10 days. The mature larvae drop down into the soil for pupation. The pupal period varies from 5-7 days. There are 3-4 overlapping generations of the pest spread over the period from January-March. Thereafter, as the weather conditions turn unfavourable, the mature larvae undergo diapause in the soil instead of pupating. They break diapause on the arrival of favourable conditions in following January.
The midge infests and damages the crop in three different stages. The first attack is at the floral bud burst stage. The eggs are laid on newly emerging inflorescence, the larvae tunnel the axis and thus destroy the inflorescence completely. The mature larvae make small exit holes in the axis of the inflorescence and slip down into the soil for pupation. The second attack of the midge takes place at fruit set. The eggs are laid on the newly set fruits and the young maggots bore into these tender fruits, which slowly turn yellow and finally drop. The third attack is on tender new leaves encircling the inflorescence. The most damaging one is the first attack in which the entire inflorescence is destroyed even before flowering and fruiting. The inflorescence shows stunted growth and its axis bends at the entrance point of the larvae. It finally dries up before flowering and fruit setting.
Control
As the larvae pupate in the soil, ploughing of the orchards expose pupating as well as diapausing larvae to sun’s heat which kills them.
Soil application of Methyl Parathion also kills pupating as well as diapausing larvae in the soil. The insecticide in the soil should be applied after monitoring larval population on white sheet below the tree.
Spraying of 0.05 per cent Fenetrothion or 0.045 per cent Dimethoate or 0.04 per cent Diazinon at the bud burst stage of the inflorescence has been found effective in controlling the pest population.
In addition to the inflorescence midge, Erosomyia indica, two other gall-midges Dasineura amramanjarae Grover and Procystiphora mangiferae Felt have been found damaging the mango inflorescence. They infest and damage the floral buds of the inflorescence. The mature larvae of D. amramanjarae are red, whereas those of P. mangiferae are orange in colour. The larvae of the former species pupate in buds itself. The infested buds of D. amramanjarae have red coloured petals and hence can be identified easily. The infested buds of P. mangiferae swell and look bigger than normal buds. The control measures used for E. indica were also found effective against these midges.
Fruitfly : The oriental fruitfly is one of the most serious pests of mango in the country which has created problem in the export of fresh fruits. Daccus dorsalis, D. zonatus and D. correctus are the most common fruitflies which cause serious damage to mature mango fruits. The adult flies are dark brown in colour and measure 7 mm in length and 4 mm across the wings. The females have tapering abdomen which ends in an ovipositor. The female punctures the outer wall of the mature fruits with the help of its pointed ovipositor and insert eggs in small clusters inside the mesocarp of mature fruits. After hatching, the larva feeds on the pulp of fruit which appears normal from outside, but drops down finally. The mature maggots fall down into the soil for pupation. The emergence of fruitfly starts from April onwards and the maximum population is recorded during May-July which coincides with fruit maturity. The population declines slowly from August to September after which it is non-existent up to March.
Control
(i) Chemical : The adult fruitflies can be controlled by bait sprays of carbaryl (0.2%) + protein hydrolysate (0.1%) or molasses starting at pre-oviposition stage (first week of April), repeated once after 21 days. Another method to control these flies is to hang traps containing a 100 ml water emulsion of methyl euginol (0.1%) + Malathion (0.1%) during fruiting (April to June). About 10 such traps are sufficient for one hectare of orchard.
(ii) Integrated pest management (IPM)
Collection and proper disposal of the infested and dropped fruits.
Ploughing the orchards and exposing the diapausing pupae to sun’s heat. Releasing of parasite and predator during December to February are helpful in reducing the pest population.
Monitoring and destruction of emerging adult with methyl euginol traps.
Early harvesting of mature fruits.
Selective and need based bait spray.
Hot water treatment or vapour heat treatment (VHT) of fruits before storage and ripening for killing the larvae.
Scale insects : Scale insects were not considered serious pest on mango in any part of the country till recently, but of late, they have assumed the status of serious pest in certain parts of the country. Pulvinaria polygonata, Aspidiatus destructor, Ceroplastis sp. and Rastococus sp. are some of the most common scale insects infesting mango crop. The nymphs and adult scales suck the sap of the leaves and other tender parts and reduce the vigour of the plants. They also secrete honeydew which encourages the development of sooty mould on leaves and other tender parts of the mango plant. In case of severe scale infestation, growth and fruit bearing capacity of the tree is affected adversely. Among the above scale insects, P. polygonata is posing a serious threat to mango industry of western Uttar Pradesh.
Control : Pruning of the heavily infested plant parts and their immediate destruction followed by two sprays of Monocrotophos (0.04 %) or Diazinon (0.04 %) or Dimethoate (0.06 %) at an interval of 20 days have been found very effective in controlling the scale population.
f) Shoot borer (Chlumetia transversa) : This pest is found all over the country. Larvae of this moth bore into the young shoot resulting in dropping of leaves and wilting of shoots. Larvae also bore into the inflorescence stalk. The adult moths are shining grey in colour and measure about 17.5 mm with expanded wings. Hind wings are light in colour. Female moths lay eggs on tender leaves. After hatching, young larvae enter the midrib of leaves and then enter into young shoots through the growing points by tunnelling downwards. The full grown larva is dark pink in colour with dirty spots and measures about 22 mm in length. There are four overlapping generations of the pest in a year and it overwinters in pupal stage.
Control : The attacked shoots may be clipped off and destroyed. Spraying of Carbaryl (0.2%) or Quinalphos (0.05%) or Monocrotophos (0.04%) at fortnightly intervals from the commencement of new flush gives effective control of the pest. A total of 2-3 sprays may be done depending on the intensity of infestation.
Bark-eating caterpillar (Ludarbella quadrinotata) : This pest is found damaging a variety of plants including a number of fruit trees, forest trees and ornamentals all over India. The old, shady and neglected orchards are more prone to attack by this pest. Larvae of this moth feed on the bark and weaken the tree. The moth is light grey in colour with dark brown dots and measures about 35-40 mm with expanded wings. A single female lays about 300-400 eggs in batches on the bark. The full grown caterpillar is dirty brown in colour and is about 35-45 mm in length. The caterpillar spins brown silken web on the tree which consists of their excreta and wood particles. Larvae also make shelter tunnels inside the stem in which they rest. Larvae actually feed from April to December. There is only one generation in a year.
Control : Remove the webs from tree trunks and put emulsion of Monocrotophos (0.05%) or DDVP (0.05%) in each hole and plug them with mud.
Stem borer (Batocera rufomaculata)
Stem borer is widely distributed in India and attacks a variety of fruit trees including mango. Damage is caused by the grub of this beetle as it feeds inside the stems boring upward resulting in drying of branches and in severe cases attained stem also dies. Adult beetles, 35-50 mm in size, are stout and greyish brown in colour with dark brown and black spots. Eggs are laid either in the slits of tree trunk or in the cavities in main branches and stems covered with a viscous fluid. Full grown grubs are cream coloured with dark brown head and 90 x 20 mm in size. Pupation takes place within the stem. Beetle emerges in July-August. There is only one generation of the pest in a year.
Control : The pest can be effectively controlled by following the recommendations given for the control of bark eating caterpillar.
Shoot gall psylla (Apsylla cistellata) : It is a very serious pest of mango in many parts of India, particularly in Terai region of U.P., north Bihar and West Bengal. This pest creates green conical galls in leaf axis. The activity of the pest starts from August. The galls dry out after emergence of psyllid adults in March. The females lay eggs in the midribs as well as in lateral axis of new leaves. Nymphs emerge from eggs during August-September and crawl to the adjacent buds to suck cell sap. As a result of feeding, the buds develop into hard conical green galls. The galls are usually seen during September-October. Consequently, there is no fruit set.
Eggs are white while nymphs are flat and of pale yellow in colour. Adults are 3-4 mm long with black head and thorax and light brown abdomen. Female lays approx. 150 eggs during March-April and nymphs pass the winter inside the galls. There is only one generation of the pest in a year.
Control : The galls with nymphs inside should be collected and destroyed to prevent carryover of the pest. The pest can effectively be controlled by spraying Monocrotophos (0.05%) or Dimethoate (0.06%) or Quinalphos (0.05 %) at 2 week intervals starting from the middle of August. The use of same chemical for every spray should be avoided.
j) Leaf webber (Orthaga euadrusalis): The pest is attaining serious proportions. Its infestation starts from the month of April and goes up to December. Eggs are laid singly or in clusters within silken webbings on leaves. Upon hatching, the caterpillars feed on leaf surface by scrapping. Later, they make web of tender shoots and leaves together and feed within. Generally, 1-9 larvae are found in a single web. Pupation takes place inside the webs in silken cocoons. However, the last generation (December-January) pupates in the soil. The adult moths are medium sized and sombre coloured. Fully grown caterpillar measures 2.5 to 3 cm. They are brownish in colour with brown spots and whitish striation on the dorsal surface. The pupae diapause for about five to six months. The infestation is severe in shady conditions. Old orchards with lesser space between tree canopy have more infestation than open orchards.
Control : Pruning of infested shoots and their burning in the month of April to July is found effective. Raking of the soil around the base of the trees in January, after the last generation has pupated, helps in checking the pest population. Three sprays starting from the last week of July at 15 days interval with Carbaryl (0.2%) or Monocrotophos (0.05%)) or Quinalphos (0.05%) have been found effective in controlling the pest.
Stone weevil (Sternochetus mangiferae) : This insect is widely distributed in tropics. It is a common pest of mango in southern India. Another species, S. frigidus,of the pest is found in Assam and Bengal. Sweeter varieties such as Alphonso, Bangalora, Neelum, etc. are more prone to attack by this pest.
Female lays eggs on the epicarp of partially developed fruits or under the rind of ripening fruits. Newly emerged grubs bore through the pulp, feed on seed coat and later cause damage to cotyledons. Pupation takes place inside the seed. Discolouration of the pulp adjacent to the affected portion has been observed.
Eggs are minute and white in colour. Adult weevils are 5 to 8 mm long, stout and dark brown in colour. Life-cycle is completed in 40 to 50 days during June-July. Adults hibernate until the next fruiting season. There is only one generation in a year.
Control
Destroying the affected fruits and exposing the hibernating weevils by digging the soil
Spraying the trees with Fenthion (0.01%)
DISORDERS
a) Mango malformation : Malformation is widely prevalent in northern India, particularly in the states of Punjab, Delhi and western U.P. where more than 50 per cent of the trees suffer from this malady. The malformed panicles remain unproductive and are characterised by a compact mass of male flowers, greenish in colour and stunted in growth. The main and secondary rachis are thick and short and bear flowers with relatively larger bracts, sepals and petals as compared to normal flowers. The malformed panicles remain intact on the trees for a considerable period. Though research efforto made hitherts have not been able to ascertain its etiology, the complexity of the disorder is attributed cultural practices, nutritional, to many factors like, mites, fungal, viral, etc. hormonal imbalance. The exact cause and control of the malady is yet to be established. However, some remedial measures are recommended as follows :
Pruning of shoots bearing malformed panicles
Deblossoming of early emerged / infested panicles.
b) Biennial bearing : The term biennial, alternate or irregular bearing generally signifies the tendency of mango trees to bear a heavy crop in one year (On year) and very little or no crop in the succeeding year (Off year). Most of the commercial varieties of north India, namely, Dashehari, Langra and Chausa are biennial bearers, while south Indian varieties like Totapuri, Red Small, Neelum and Bangalora are known to be regular bearers. When a tree produces heavy crop in one season, it gets exhausted nutritionally and is unable to put forth new flush thereby failing to yield in the following season. The problem has been attributed to the causes like genetical, physiological, environmental and nutritional factors. For overcoming biennial bearing, deblossoming is recommended to reduce the crop load in the ‘On’ year such that it is balanced in in the ‘Off’ year. Proper maintenance of orchard by way of effectively controlling pests and diseases and regular cultural operations may also result in better performance of the tree every year. Soil application of Paclobutrazol (PP333) or @ 4 - 5 g per tree in the month of September resulted in early flowering with higher fruit set and yield. It may be applied every year for regular fruiting, particularly in young trees. The time of application may vary according to fruit bud differentiation.
c) Fruit drop : Despite high fruit set initially, the ultimate retention is quite low in mango. The intensity of fruit drop, varies from variety to variety. Among the commercially grown varieties, Langra is more susceptible to drop while Dashehari is the least. The fruit drop is more or less a continuous process and can be classified into three groups : (i) Pinhead drop, (ii) Post-setting drop and (iii) May-month drop. The fruit drop in first two groups are insignificant compared to the third group which affects the final yield significantly and needs more attention. Embryo abortion, climatic factors, disturbed water relation, lack of nutrition, disease, pest and hormonal imbalances are the major factors that lead to fruit drop. The foliar application of Alary (B-nine) @ 100 ppm or NAA 20 ppm at pea stage of fruit was found effective in controlling fruit drop in mango.
d) Black tip : Black tip is a serious disorder, particularly in the cultivar Dashehari. The affected fruits become unmarketable and reduce the yield to a considerable extent. The damage to the fruit gets initiated right at marble stage with a characteristic yellowing of tissues at distal end. Gradually, the colour intensifies into brown and finally black. At this stage, further growth and development of the fruit is retarded and black ring at the tip extends towards the upper part of the fruit. Black tip disorder has generally been detected in orchards located in the vicinity of brick kilns. It has been reported that the gases like carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide and ethylene constituting the fumes of brick kiln are known to damage growing tip of fruits and give rise to the symptoms of black tip. Apart from these factors, irrigation, condition of the tree and management practices also play important role in deciding the severity of the disorder.
Planting of mango orchards in North-South direction and 5 to 6 km away from the brick kilns may reduce incidence of black tip to a greater extent.
The incidence of black tip can also be minimised by the spray of borax (1%) or other alkaline solutions like caustic (0.8%) or washing (0.5%) soda. The first spray of borax should be done positively at pea stage followed by two more sprays at 15 days interval.
e) Clustering disorder in mango (‘Jhumka’) : A fruiting disorder, locallly known as ‘Jhumka’, is characterised by the development of fruitlets in clusters at the tip of the panicles. Such fruits do not grow beyond pea or marble stage and drop down after a month or so of fruit set. These fruits do not contain seeds when they are cut open. The disorder seems to be due to lack of pollination / fertilization which may be attributed to many reasons. Among them, absence of sufficient population of pollinators in the orchards is the major reason. Surveys conducted in the mango belt of Lucknow revealed that the more problem is area in Malihabad and Dashehari is the most affected cultivar. The other reasons causing the disorder are old and overcrowding of trees, indiscriminate spraying against pests and diseases, use of synthetic pyrethroids for spraying, monoculture of Dashehari, and bad weather during flowering. Some of the remedial measures are suggested below :
Insecticides should not be sprayed at full bloom to avoid killing of pollinators.
Pests and diseases should be controlled in time by spraying the recommended pesticides only.
Introduction of beehives in the orchards during flowering season for increasing the number of pollinators.
The practice of monoculture of a particular variety may be avoided. In case of Dashehari, 5-6 per cent of other varieties should be planted in new plantations. In old orchards, where monoculture of a particular variety like Dashehari is followed, a few branches may be top worked with pollinizing varieties.
Pruning of old trees may be done to open the canopy.
Spraying of 300 ppm NAA may be done during October-November.
DISEASES: Powdery mildew, Anthracnose, Die back , Phoma blight , Bacterial canker, Red rust , Sooty mould Postharvest Diseases
PESTS: Hopper, Mealy bug , Inflorescence midge, Fruitfly, Scale insects, Shoot borer, Bark-eating caterpillar, Stem borer, Shoot gall psylla, Leaf webber, Stone weevil
DISORDERS: Mango malformation, Biennial bearing, Fruit drop, Black tip, Clustering disorder in mango (‘Jhumka’) | Home |Mango Site |
DISEASES
Mango suffers from several diseases at all stages of its life. All the parts of the plant, namely, trunk, branch, twig, leaf, petiole, flower and fruit are attacked by a number of pathogens including fungi, bacteria and algae. They cause several kinds of rot, die back, anthracnose, scab, necrosis, blotch, spots, mildew, etc. Some of these diseases like powdery mildew are of great economic importance as they cause heavy losses in mango production. Major diseases of mango and their control measures are discussed below.
a) Powdery mildew (Oidium mangiferae Berthet) : Powdery mildew is one of the most serious diseases of mango affecting almost all the varieties, It occurs up to latitude of 40o North and South of the equator. It may persist for longer period at an elevation of 600-1200 meters, in many African countries, south of the Sahara, the middle East, Southern Asia and America : from the Southern United States to Peru and Brazil.
The disease is reported to cause approximately 20 per cent crop loss in Maharashtra state alone. Sometimes, as high as 70-80 per cent crop loss has been recorded on individual plant basis.
The characteristic symptom of the disease is the white superficial powdery fungal growth on leaves, stalks of panicles, flowers and young fruits. The affected flowers and fruits drop pre-maturely reducing the crop load considerably or might even preven the fruit set. Rains or mists accompanied by cooler nights during flowering are congenial for the disease spread. The fungus parasitizes young tissues of all parts of the inflorescence, leaves and fruits.
Control : Following three sprays of fungicides at 15 days interval recommended for effective control of the disease :
Wettable sulphur 0.2 per cent (2 g Sulfex / lit. water).
Tridemorph 0.1 per cent ( 1 ml Calixin / lit. water).
Dinocap 0.1 per cent (1 ml / g Karathane / lit. water).
b) Anthracnose (Colletotrichum state of Glomerella cingulata Ston, Spaull and Schrenk) : The anthracnose disease is of widespread occurrence. The disease causes serious losses to young shoots, flowers and fruits under favourable climatic conditions of high humidity, frequent rains and a temperature of 24-32oC. It is also affects fruits during storage. The disease produces leaf spot, blossom blight, withertip, twig blight and fruit rot symptoms. Tender shoots and foliage are easily affected which ultimately cause ‘die back’ of young branches. Older twigs may also be infected through wounds which in severe cases may be fatal.
Depending on the prevailing weather conditions blossom blight may vary in severity from slight to a heavy infection of the panicles. Black spots develop on panicles as well as on fruits. Severe infection destroys the entire inflorescence resulting in no setting of fruits. Young infected fruits develop black spots, shrivel and drop off. Fruits infected at mature stage carry the fungus into storage and cause considerable loss during storage, transit and marketing. The fungus perpetuates on twigs and leaves of mango or other hosts. Varietal differences in susceptibility have been noted in India. In Kerala, maximum damage was observed on Neelum, whereas variety Edward was reported to be resistant. Since the fungus has a long saprophytic survival ability on dead twigs, the diseased twigs should be pruned and burnt along with fallen leaves for reducing the inoculum potential.
Control: Trees may be sprayed twice with Bavistin (0.1%) at 15 days interval during flowering to control blossom infection. Spraying of copper fungicides (0.3%) is recommended for the control of foliar infection.
c) Die back (Botryodiplodia theobromae Pat.) : Die back is one of the serious diseases of mango. The disease is prevalent in Rajasthan, Delhi, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Haryana, Orissa, Gujrat, Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh. The disease on the tree may be noticed at any time of the year but it is most conspicuous during Oct.-Nov. The disease is characterized by drying of twigs and branches followed by complete defoliation, which gives the tree an appearance of scorching by fire. The onset of die back becomes evident by discolouration and darkening of the bark. The dark area advances and young green twigs start withering first at the base and then extending outwards along the veins of leaf edges. The affected leaf turns brown and its margins roll upwards. At this stage, the twig or branch dies, shrivels and falls. This may be accompanied by exudation of gum. In old branches, brown streaking of vascular tissue is seen on splitting it longitudinally. The areas of cambium and phloem show brown discolouration and yellow gum like substance is found in some of the cells.
Control : (i) Prune the diseased twigs and spray with copper oxychloride (0.3%) on infected trees. Pruning should be done in such a way that the twigs are removed 2-3 inches below the affected portion. (ii) In small plants, pruning of twigs is followed by pasting of copper oxychloride.
d) Phoma blight (Phoma glomerata (Cords) Woll. Hochapf)
Phoma blight, a new disease of mango, was first reported at Central Mango Research Station, Lucknow. The disease was later detected in mango growing belt around Lucknow region. It is now gaining economic importance.
The symptoms of the disease are noticeable only on old leaves. Initially, the lesions are angular, minute, irregular, yellow to light brown, scattered over leaf lamina. As the lesions enlarge, their colour changes from brown to cinnamon and they become almost irregular. Fully developed spots are characterized by dark margins and dull grey necrotic centres. In case of severe infection such spots coalesce forming patches measuring 3.5-13 cm in size, resulting in complete withering and defoliation of infected leaves.
Control : The disease could be kept under control by spray of copper oxychloride (0.3%) just after the appearance of the disease and subsequent sprays at 20 day intervals.
e) Bacterial canker (Xanthomonas campestris pv. mangiferaeindicae) : Canker disease of mango, caused by a bacterium, is prevalent in Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, U.P., Bihar, Delhi, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh and probably in several other mango growing areas. Besides being pathogenic on several varieties of mango, the organism is capable of infecting wild mango, cashew nut and weeds as well. The disease causes fruit drop (10-70%), yield loss (10-85%) and storage rot (5-100%). Many commercial cultivars of mango including Langra, Dashehari, Amrapali, Mallika, and Totapuri are susceptible to this disease.
The disease is found on leaves, petioles, twigs, branches and fruits, initially producing water-soaked lesions and later turning into typical cankers. The disease first appears as minute water-soaked irregular lesions on any part of leaf or leaf lamina. The lesions are light yellow in colour but with age, enlarge and turn dark brown to black. They become angular, cankerous and raised, and are surrounded by chlorotic halos. Several lesions coalesce to form irregular necrotic cankerous patches. In severe infections the leaves turn yellow and drop off. Cankerous lesions appear on petioles, twigs and young fruits. The water soaked lesions also develop on fruits which later turn dark brown to black. They often burst open, releasing a highly contagious gummy ooze containg bacterial cells. The fresh lesions on branches and twigs are water soaked which later become raised and dark brown in colour with longitudinal cracks but without any ooze.
Control :
Seedling certification, inspection and orchard sanitation.
Three sprays of streptocycline (100 ppm) or Agrimycin-100 (100 ppm) after first visual symptom at 10-days intervals.
Monthly sprays of Bavistin (1000 ppm) or copper oxychloride (3000 ppm) were also found effective.
Precautions: Do not wait for appearance of the disease. The key to success for full control is to start application of fungicides before the infection has established.
f) Red rust ( Cephaleuros virescens Kunze) : Red rust disease, caused by an alga, has been observed in mango growing areas. The algal attack causes reduction in photosynthetic activity and defoliation of leaves thereby lowering vitality of the host plant.
The disease can easily be recognized by the rusty red spots mainly on leaves and sometimes on petioles and bark of young twigs and is epiphytic in nature. The spots are greenish grey in colour and velvety in texture. Later, they turn reddish brown. The circular and slightly elevated spots sometimes coalesce to form larger and irregular spots.
The disease is more common in closely planted orchards. Fruiting bodies of the alga are formed in humid atmosphere. The zoospores formed by the sporangia initiate fresh infections. Stem entry is achieved by way of cracks. The affected areas crack and scale off. In severe infection the bark becomes thickened, twigs get enlarged but remain stunted and the foliage becomes sparse and finally dries up.
Control : Two to three sprays of copper oxychloride (0.3%) is effective in controlling the disease.
g) Sooty mould (Meliola mangiferae) : The disease is common in the orchards where mealy bug, scale insect and hopper are not controlled efficiently. The disease in the field is recognis by the presence of a black velvety coating, i.e., sooty mould on the leaf surface. In severe cases the trees turn completely black due to the presence of mould over the entire surface of twigs and leaves. The severity of infection depends on the honey dew secretion by the above said insects. Honey dew secretions from insects sticks to the leaf surface and provide necessary medium for fungal growth. The fungus is essentially saprophytic and is non-pathogenic because it does not derive nutrients from the host tissues. Although no direct damage is caused by the fungus, the photosynthetic activity of the leaf is adversely affected due to blockage of stomata.
Control
Pruning of affected branches and their prompt destruction prevents the spread of the disease.
Spraying of 2 per cent starch is found effective.
It could also be controlled by spray of Nottasul + Metacin + gumacasea (0.2% + 0.1% + 0.3%).
B. Postharvest Diseases : The mango fruit is susceptible tomany postharvest diseases caused by anthracnose (C. gloeosporioides) and stem end rot (L. theobromae) during storage under ambient condtions or even at low temperature. Aspergillus rot is another postharvest disease of mango.
Control : Preharvest sprays of fungicides could control the diseases caused by latents infection of these fungi. Postharvest dip treatment of fruits with fungicides could also control the diseases during storage. The following treatments are suggested.
(i) Three sprays of carbendazim (0.1%) orthiophante-methyl (0.1%) at 15 days interval should be done in such a way that the last spray falls 15 days prior to harvest.
(ii) Postharvest dip treatment of fruits in carbendazim (0.1%) in hot water at 52+1oC for 15 minutes.
PESTS
More than 492 species of insects, 17 species of mites and 26 species of nematodes have been reported to be infesting mango trees, about 45 per cent of which have been reported from India. Almost a dozen of them have been found damaging the crop to a considerable extent causing severe losses and, therefore, may be termed as major pests of mango. These are hopper, mealy bug, inflorescence midge, fruitfly, scale insect, shoot borer, leaf webber and stone weevil. Of these, insects infesting the crop during flowering and fruiting periods cause more severe damage. The insects other than those indicated above are considered as less injurious to mango crop and are placed in the category of minor pests. A brief description of the biology and control of major pests of mango is given below.
a) Hopper : Of all the mango pests, hopper is considered as the most serious and widespread pest throughout the country. Idioscopus clypealis Lethierry, Idioscopus nitidulus (Walker)and Amritodus atkinsoni Lethierry are the most common and destructive species of hoppers which cause heavy damage to mango crop. Large number of nymphs and adult insects puncture and suck the sap of tender parts, thereby reducing the vigour of the plants. Heavy puncturing and continuos draining of the sap cause curling and drying of the infested tissue. They also damage the crop by secreting a sweet sticky substance which encourages the development of the fungus Maliola mangiferae, commonly known as sooty mould which affects adversely the photosynthetic activities of the leaves. A low population of hoppers has been recorded in mango orchards throughout the year but it shoots up during February-April and June-August. Shade and high humidity conditions are favourable for their multiplication. Such conditions usually prevail in old, neglected and closely planted orchards.
The female hoppers lay 100-200 eggs on mid rib of tender leaves, buds and inflorescence. In summers the total life cycle occupies 2-3 weeks.
Control
a) Chemical : Three sprays of 0.15 per cent Carbaryl or 0.04 per cent Monocrotophos or 0.05 per cent Phosphomidon or 0.05 per cent Methyl Parathion have been found very useful in controlling the pest population. First spray should be given at the early stage of panicle formation. The second spray at full length stage of panicles but before full bloom and the third spray after the fruits are set and have attained pea stage are recommended.
b) Biological : Biological control agents such as the predators Mallada boninensis and Chrysopa lacciperda, the egg parasite Polynema sp. and a preparation of the fungus Beauveria bassiana are the important useful bioagents to control this pest.
c) Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
The continuous use of pesticides though control the pests but pose some other serious problems like killing of pollinators and natural enemies, development of resistance to insecticides and residues which are on fruits hazardous to human population. Besides, the high cost of pesticides, labour and maintenance of equipments are other limiting factors in pest control. Integrated pest management is gaining momentum to take care of these problems. To manage mango hopper pest, avoid dense planting and keep the orchard clean by regular ploughing and removal of weeds. Pruning of overcrowding and over lapping branches should be done in the month of December. Chemical spray is to be minimized necessary. Neem products may be included in the management schedule of the pest. The use of insect growth regulator Buprofezin (0.0125 %) is also suggested as one of the sprays.
Mealy bug : It is another major pest of mango in India and is widely distributed all along the Indo-gangetic plain. Drosicha mangiferae Green is the most common mealy bug and causes severe damage to mango crop throughout the country. Nymphs and adults suck the plant sap and reduce the vigour of the plant. Excessive and continuous draining of plant sap causes wilting and finally drying of infested tissue. They also secrete honey dew, a sticky substance, which encourages the development of a fungus Maliola mangiferae, termed as sooty mould.
The adult male is winged and small, female is bigger and wingless. The female, after copulation, crawl down the tree in the month of April-May and enter in the cracks in the soil for laying eggs in large numbers encased in white egg sacs. The eggs lie in diapause state in the soil till the return of the favourable conditions in the month of November - December. Just after hatching, the minute newly hatched pink to brown coloured nymphs crawl up the tree. After climbing up the tree they start sucking the sap of tender plant parts. They are considered more important because they infest the crop during the flowering season and if the control measures are not taken timely , the crop may be destroyed completely.
Control
(i) Mechanical : Polythene (400 gauge) bands of 25 cm width fastened around the tree trunk have been found effective barrier to stop the ascent of nymphs to the trees. The band should be fastened well in advance before the hatching of eggs, i.e., around November - December.
(ii) Chemical : Application of 250 g per tree of Methyl Parathion dust 2 per cent or Aldrin dust 10 per cent in the soil around the trunk kills the newly hatched nymphs which come in contact with the chemical.
Spraying of 0.05 per cent Monocrotophos or 0.2 per cent Carbaryl or 0.05 per cent Methyl Parathion have been found useful in controlling early instar nymphs of the mealy bug.
(iii) Biological : Menochilus sexmaculatus, Rodolia fumida and Sumnius renardi are important predators in controlling the nymphs. The entomogenous fungus Beauveria bassiana is found to be an effective bioagent in controlling the nymphs of the mealy bug.
(iv) Integrated Pest Management (IPM) : The IPM schedule of mealy bug is very important and useful if timely operations are done. Flooding of orchards with water in the month of October kills the eggs. Ploughing the orchards in the month of November exposes the eggs to sun’s heat. In the middle of December, 400 gauge alkathene sheet of 25 cm width may be fastened to the tree trunk besides raking the soil around the tree trunk and mixing of 2 per cent Methyl Parathion dust. The dust may also be sprinkled below the atkathene band on the tree. The congregated nymphs below the band may be killed by any of the suggested insecticides. The above IPM schedule holds promise to control the mealy bug but spraying of neem product and the spores of the fungus Beauveria bassiana will further ensure the reduction of the pest population.
Inflorescence midge : The mango inflorescence midge, Erosomyia indica Grover Diptera : cecidomyiidae) is another major pest of mango. Recently, this pest has become very serious in certain pockets of Uttar Pradesh causing serious damage to mango crop by attacking both the inflorescence and the small fruits. The adult midge are harmless minute flies which are short lived and die within 24 hours of emergence after copulation and oviposition. The flies lay eggs singly on floral parts like tender inflorescence axis, newly set fruit or tender leaves encircling the inflorescence. The eggs hatch within 2-3 days. Upon hatching, the minute maggots penetrate the tender parts on which the eggs have been laid and feed on them. The floral parts finally dry up and are shed. The larval period varies from 7-10 days. The mature larvae drop down into the soil for pupation. The pupal period varies from 5-7 days. There are 3-4 overlapping generations of the pest spread over the period from January-March. Thereafter, as the weather conditions turn unfavourable, the mature larvae undergo diapause in the soil instead of pupating. They break diapause on the arrival of favourable conditions in following January.
The midge infests and damages the crop in three different stages. The first attack is at the floral bud burst stage. The eggs are laid on newly emerging inflorescence, the larvae tunnel the axis and thus destroy the inflorescence completely. The mature larvae make small exit holes in the axis of the inflorescence and slip down into the soil for pupation. The second attack of the midge takes place at fruit set. The eggs are laid on the newly set fruits and the young maggots bore into these tender fruits, which slowly turn yellow and finally drop. The third attack is on tender new leaves encircling the inflorescence. The most damaging one is the first attack in which the entire inflorescence is destroyed even before flowering and fruiting. The inflorescence shows stunted growth and its axis bends at the entrance point of the larvae. It finally dries up before flowering and fruit setting.
Control
As the larvae pupate in the soil, ploughing of the orchards expose pupating as well as diapausing larvae to sun’s heat which kills them.
Soil application of Methyl Parathion also kills pupating as well as diapausing larvae in the soil. The insecticide in the soil should be applied after monitoring larval population on white sheet below the tree.
Spraying of 0.05 per cent Fenetrothion or 0.045 per cent Dimethoate or 0.04 per cent Diazinon at the bud burst stage of the inflorescence has been found effective in controlling the pest population.
In addition to the inflorescence midge, Erosomyia indica, two other gall-midges Dasineura amramanjarae Grover and Procystiphora mangiferae Felt have been found damaging the mango inflorescence. They infest and damage the floral buds of the inflorescence. The mature larvae of D. amramanjarae are red, whereas those of P. mangiferae are orange in colour. The larvae of the former species pupate in buds itself. The infested buds of D. amramanjarae have red coloured petals and hence can be identified easily. The infested buds of P. mangiferae swell and look bigger than normal buds. The control measures used for E. indica were also found effective against these midges.
Fruitfly : The oriental fruitfly is one of the most serious pests of mango in the country which has created problem in the export of fresh fruits. Daccus dorsalis, D. zonatus and D. correctus are the most common fruitflies which cause serious damage to mature mango fruits. The adult flies are dark brown in colour and measure 7 mm in length and 4 mm across the wings. The females have tapering abdomen which ends in an ovipositor. The female punctures the outer wall of the mature fruits with the help of its pointed ovipositor and insert eggs in small clusters inside the mesocarp of mature fruits. After hatching, the larva feeds on the pulp of fruit which appears normal from outside, but drops down finally. The mature maggots fall down into the soil for pupation. The emergence of fruitfly starts from April onwards and the maximum population is recorded during May-July which coincides with fruit maturity. The population declines slowly from August to September after which it is non-existent up to March.
Control
(i) Chemical : The adult fruitflies can be controlled by bait sprays of carbaryl (0.2%) + protein hydrolysate (0.1%) or molasses starting at pre-oviposition stage (first week of April), repeated once after 21 days. Another method to control these flies is to hang traps containing a 100 ml water emulsion of methyl euginol (0.1%) + Malathion (0.1%) during fruiting (April to June). About 10 such traps are sufficient for one hectare of orchard.
(ii) Integrated pest management (IPM)
Collection and proper disposal of the infested and dropped fruits.
Ploughing the orchards and exposing the diapausing pupae to sun’s heat. Releasing of parasite and predator during December to February are helpful in reducing the pest population.
Monitoring and destruction of emerging adult with methyl euginol traps.
Early harvesting of mature fruits.
Selective and need based bait spray.
Hot water treatment or vapour heat treatment (VHT) of fruits before storage and ripening for killing the larvae.
Scale insects : Scale insects were not considered serious pest on mango in any part of the country till recently, but of late, they have assumed the status of serious pest in certain parts of the country. Pulvinaria polygonata, Aspidiatus destructor, Ceroplastis sp. and Rastococus sp. are some of the most common scale insects infesting mango crop. The nymphs and adult scales suck the sap of the leaves and other tender parts and reduce the vigour of the plants. They also secrete honeydew which encourages the development of sooty mould on leaves and other tender parts of the mango plant. In case of severe scale infestation, growth and fruit bearing capacity of the tree is affected adversely. Among the above scale insects, P. polygonata is posing a serious threat to mango industry of western Uttar Pradesh.
Control : Pruning of the heavily infested plant parts and their immediate destruction followed by two sprays of Monocrotophos (0.04 %) or Diazinon (0.04 %) or Dimethoate (0.06 %) at an interval of 20 days have been found very effective in controlling the scale population.
f) Shoot borer (Chlumetia transversa) : This pest is found all over the country. Larvae of this moth bore into the young shoot resulting in dropping of leaves and wilting of shoots. Larvae also bore into the inflorescence stalk. The adult moths are shining grey in colour and measure about 17.5 mm with expanded wings. Hind wings are light in colour. Female moths lay eggs on tender leaves. After hatching, young larvae enter the midrib of leaves and then enter into young shoots through the growing points by tunnelling downwards. The full grown larva is dark pink in colour with dirty spots and measures about 22 mm in length. There are four overlapping generations of the pest in a year and it overwinters in pupal stage.
Control : The attacked shoots may be clipped off and destroyed. Spraying of Carbaryl (0.2%) or Quinalphos (0.05%) or Monocrotophos (0.04%) at fortnightly intervals from the commencement of new flush gives effective control of the pest. A total of 2-3 sprays may be done depending on the intensity of infestation.
Bark-eating caterpillar (Ludarbella quadrinotata) : This pest is found damaging a variety of plants including a number of fruit trees, forest trees and ornamentals all over India. The old, shady and neglected orchards are more prone to attack by this pest. Larvae of this moth feed on the bark and weaken the tree. The moth is light grey in colour with dark brown dots and measures about 35-40 mm with expanded wings. A single female lays about 300-400 eggs in batches on the bark. The full grown caterpillar is dirty brown in colour and is about 35-45 mm in length. The caterpillar spins brown silken web on the tree which consists of their excreta and wood particles. Larvae also make shelter tunnels inside the stem in which they rest. Larvae actually feed from April to December. There is only one generation in a year.
Control : Remove the webs from tree trunks and put emulsion of Monocrotophos (0.05%) or DDVP (0.05%) in each hole and plug them with mud.
Stem borer (Batocera rufomaculata)
Stem borer is widely distributed in India and attacks a variety of fruit trees including mango. Damage is caused by the grub of this beetle as it feeds inside the stems boring upward resulting in drying of branches and in severe cases attained stem also dies. Adult beetles, 35-50 mm in size, are stout and greyish brown in colour with dark brown and black spots. Eggs are laid either in the slits of tree trunk or in the cavities in main branches and stems covered with a viscous fluid. Full grown grubs are cream coloured with dark brown head and 90 x 20 mm in size. Pupation takes place within the stem. Beetle emerges in July-August. There is only one generation of the pest in a year.
Control : The pest can be effectively controlled by following the recommendations given for the control of bark eating caterpillar.
Shoot gall psylla (Apsylla cistellata) : It is a very serious pest of mango in many parts of India, particularly in Terai region of U.P., north Bihar and West Bengal. This pest creates green conical galls in leaf axis. The activity of the pest starts from August. The galls dry out after emergence of psyllid adults in March. The females lay eggs in the midribs as well as in lateral axis of new leaves. Nymphs emerge from eggs during August-September and crawl to the adjacent buds to suck cell sap. As a result of feeding, the buds develop into hard conical green galls. The galls are usually seen during September-October. Consequently, there is no fruit set.
Eggs are white while nymphs are flat and of pale yellow in colour. Adults are 3-4 mm long with black head and thorax and light brown abdomen. Female lays approx. 150 eggs during March-April and nymphs pass the winter inside the galls. There is only one generation of the pest in a year.
Control : The galls with nymphs inside should be collected and destroyed to prevent carryover of the pest. The pest can effectively be controlled by spraying Monocrotophos (0.05%) or Dimethoate (0.06%) or Quinalphos (0.05 %) at 2 week intervals starting from the middle of August. The use of same chemical for every spray should be avoided.
j) Leaf webber (Orthaga euadrusalis): The pest is attaining serious proportions. Its infestation starts from the month of April and goes up to December. Eggs are laid singly or in clusters within silken webbings on leaves. Upon hatching, the caterpillars feed on leaf surface by scrapping. Later, they make web of tender shoots and leaves together and feed within. Generally, 1-9 larvae are found in a single web. Pupation takes place inside the webs in silken cocoons. However, the last generation (December-January) pupates in the soil. The adult moths are medium sized and sombre coloured. Fully grown caterpillar measures 2.5 to 3 cm. They are brownish in colour with brown spots and whitish striation on the dorsal surface. The pupae diapause for about five to six months. The infestation is severe in shady conditions. Old orchards with lesser space between tree canopy have more infestation than open orchards.
Control : Pruning of infested shoots and their burning in the month of April to July is found effective. Raking of the soil around the base of the trees in January, after the last generation has pupated, helps in checking the pest population. Three sprays starting from the last week of July at 15 days interval with Carbaryl (0.2%) or Monocrotophos (0.05%)) or Quinalphos (0.05%) have been found effective in controlling the pest.
Stone weevil (Sternochetus mangiferae) : This insect is widely distributed in tropics. It is a common pest of mango in southern India. Another species, S. frigidus,of the pest is found in Assam and Bengal. Sweeter varieties such as Alphonso, Bangalora, Neelum, etc. are more prone to attack by this pest.
Female lays eggs on the epicarp of partially developed fruits or under the rind of ripening fruits. Newly emerged grubs bore through the pulp, feed on seed coat and later cause damage to cotyledons. Pupation takes place inside the seed. Discolouration of the pulp adjacent to the affected portion has been observed.
Eggs are minute and white in colour. Adult weevils are 5 to 8 mm long, stout and dark brown in colour. Life-cycle is completed in 40 to 50 days during June-July. Adults hibernate until the next fruiting season. There is only one generation in a year.
Control
Destroying the affected fruits and exposing the hibernating weevils by digging the soil
Spraying the trees with Fenthion (0.01%)
DISORDERS
a) Mango malformation : Malformation is widely prevalent in northern India, particularly in the states of Punjab, Delhi and western U.P. where more than 50 per cent of the trees suffer from this malady. The malformed panicles remain unproductive and are characterised by a compact mass of male flowers, greenish in colour and stunted in growth. The main and secondary rachis are thick and short and bear flowers with relatively larger bracts, sepals and petals as compared to normal flowers. The malformed panicles remain intact on the trees for a considerable period. Though research efforto made hitherts have not been able to ascertain its etiology, the complexity of the disorder is attributed cultural practices, nutritional, to many factors like, mites, fungal, viral, etc. hormonal imbalance. The exact cause and control of the malady is yet to be established. However, some remedial measures are recommended as follows :
Pruning of shoots bearing malformed panicles
Deblossoming of early emerged / infested panicles.
b) Biennial bearing : The term biennial, alternate or irregular bearing generally signifies the tendency of mango trees to bear a heavy crop in one year (On year) and very little or no crop in the succeeding year (Off year). Most of the commercial varieties of north India, namely, Dashehari, Langra and Chausa are biennial bearers, while south Indian varieties like Totapuri, Red Small, Neelum and Bangalora are known to be regular bearers. When a tree produces heavy crop in one season, it gets exhausted nutritionally and is unable to put forth new flush thereby failing to yield in the following season. The problem has been attributed to the causes like genetical, physiological, environmental and nutritional factors. For overcoming biennial bearing, deblossoming is recommended to reduce the crop load in the ‘On’ year such that it is balanced in in the ‘Off’ year. Proper maintenance of orchard by way of effectively controlling pests and diseases and regular cultural operations may also result in better performance of the tree every year. Soil application of Paclobutrazol (PP333) or @ 4 - 5 g per tree in the month of September resulted in early flowering with higher fruit set and yield. It may be applied every year for regular fruiting, particularly in young trees. The time of application may vary according to fruit bud differentiation.
c) Fruit drop : Despite high fruit set initially, the ultimate retention is quite low in mango. The intensity of fruit drop, varies from variety to variety. Among the commercially grown varieties, Langra is more susceptible to drop while Dashehari is the least. The fruit drop is more or less a continuous process and can be classified into three groups : (i) Pinhead drop, (ii) Post-setting drop and (iii) May-month drop. The fruit drop in first two groups are insignificant compared to the third group which affects the final yield significantly and needs more attention. Embryo abortion, climatic factors, disturbed water relation, lack of nutrition, disease, pest and hormonal imbalances are the major factors that lead to fruit drop. The foliar application of Alary (B-nine) @ 100 ppm or NAA 20 ppm at pea stage of fruit was found effective in controlling fruit drop in mango.
d) Black tip : Black tip is a serious disorder, particularly in the cultivar Dashehari. The affected fruits become unmarketable and reduce the yield to a considerable extent. The damage to the fruit gets initiated right at marble stage with a characteristic yellowing of tissues at distal end. Gradually, the colour intensifies into brown and finally black. At this stage, further growth and development of the fruit is retarded and black ring at the tip extends towards the upper part of the fruit. Black tip disorder has generally been detected in orchards located in the vicinity of brick kilns. It has been reported that the gases like carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide and ethylene constituting the fumes of brick kiln are known to damage growing tip of fruits and give rise to the symptoms of black tip. Apart from these factors, irrigation, condition of the tree and management practices also play important role in deciding the severity of the disorder.
Planting of mango orchards in North-South direction and 5 to 6 km away from the brick kilns may reduce incidence of black tip to a greater extent.
The incidence of black tip can also be minimised by the spray of borax (1%) or other alkaline solutions like caustic (0.8%) or washing (0.5%) soda. The first spray of borax should be done positively at pea stage followed by two more sprays at 15 days interval.
e) Clustering disorder in mango (‘Jhumka’) : A fruiting disorder, locallly known as ‘Jhumka’, is characterised by the development of fruitlets in clusters at the tip of the panicles. Such fruits do not grow beyond pea or marble stage and drop down after a month or so of fruit set. These fruits do not contain seeds when they are cut open. The disorder seems to be due to lack of pollination / fertilization which may be attributed to many reasons. Among them, absence of sufficient population of pollinators in the orchards is the major reason. Surveys conducted in the mango belt of Lucknow revealed that the more problem is area in Malihabad and Dashehari is the most affected cultivar. The other reasons causing the disorder are old and overcrowding of trees, indiscriminate spraying against pests and diseases, use of synthetic pyrethroids for spraying, monoculture of Dashehari, and bad weather during flowering. Some of the remedial measures are suggested below :
Insecticides should not be sprayed at full bloom to avoid killing of pollinators.
Pests and diseases should be controlled in time by spraying the recommended pesticides only.
Introduction of beehives in the orchards during flowering season for increasing the number of pollinators.
The practice of monoculture of a particular variety may be avoided. In case of Dashehari, 5-6 per cent of other varieties should be planted in new plantations. In old orchards, where monoculture of a particular variety like Dashehari is followed, a few branches may be top worked with pollinizing varieties.
Pruning of old trees may be done to open the canopy.
Spraying of 300 ppm NAA may be done during October-November.
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