Cultivation Practices
Land Preparation > Sowing > Intercultivation > Harvesting > Post Harvest Field Management >
Land Preparation
Summer Ploughing
Summer ploughing improves soil structure due to alternate drying and cooling. Soil permeability is increased by breaking the compacted layers. Tillage improves soil aeration which helps in multiplication of micro organisms. Organic matter decomposition is hastened resulting in higher nutrient availability.
Increased aeration also helps in degradation of herbicide and pesticide residues and harmful allelopathic chemicals exuded by roots of previous crop or weed. It also helps in reducing the soil dwelling insect pests. In view of several benefits summer ploughing could be taken up at optimum moisture level.
Frequent harrowing has to be avoided as it results in destruction of soil structure. Tillage at improper moisture level is to be discouraged as it also damages soil structure and leads to development of hard pans.
Shallow Ploughing
It is generally followed by the most of the farmers repeatedly at the same depth (12-15 Cm). As a result of this hard pans are created, which inhibits the penetration of roots in deep rooted crops.
Eg: Cotton roots grow to a depth of 2 Mts. in deep alluvial soils without any pans, when hard pans are present they grow only upto hard pan (5 - 20 cm). But shallow ploughing is practiced to open the soil crust to increase the receptivity of rainfall.
Puddling
" Making soil impermeable by manipulating and compacting it in standing water, which reduces its apparent specific volume, thus facilitates transplanting." As a result of puddling, an impervious layer is formed below the surface which reduces deep percolation losses of water.
Levelling
Levelling is the tillage operation in which the soil is moved to a establish a desired soil elevation stage. Due to levelling the use of water and fertilizer efficiency increases effectively.
Harrowing
Harrowing is a secondary tillage operation which pulverizes, smoothens and packs the soil in seed-bed preparation and control weeds.
Conservation Tillage
The main objective is to conserve soil and moisture .Conservation tillage is an operation that is designed to maintain roughness of a field surface and leave most of the previous crop residues on the surface while providing a suitable seed-bed and weed control for the next crop.
This roughness reduces water run off and soil erosion.
Ridges and Furrows
A long, row ridge of earth with gently sloping sides and a shallow channel along the upper side, to control erosion by diverting surface run-off across the slope instead of permitting it to flow uninterrupted down to slope.
EG: Sugarcane, Sunflower, Vegetable crops.
Bunding
It is the process of forming an artificial earthern embankment made across slopping agricultural land to cut short lengthy soil slopes and reduces run-off and erosion.
These bunds are also formed along the contours across the slope of land in the low rainfall regions to conserve soil moisture.
Equipment
Summer Ploughing Indigenous plough (peddamadaka Rayalaseema) Mould board plough, Disc plough, sub-soil plough, chisel Plough.
Shallow Ploughing Country plough, Rotary Plough.
Puddling Tractor drawn implements, APAU Puddler.
Harrowing Disc harrow, Blade harrow, indigenous blade harrow (Guntaka).
Ridges And Furrows Ridge plough, Ridge former (Ridger).
Bunding Bund former, Spade.
Top
Sowing
Methods of Sowing
Broad Casting
Seeds are spread uniformly over well prepared land and is covered by ploughing or planking. It is most primitive method of sowing crops. The broadcasting has severaldisadvantages.
Seeds fall at different depths when broadcasted resulting in uneven stand.
It requires more seed rate.
Seeds fallen deep in the soil may not germinate.
Due to broadcasting excess competition at certain areas and no competition at all in other areas takes place in the field. So, yield returns will be decreased.
Water use efficiency and fertilizer efficiency will be decreased.
There is no possibility of controlling weeds by inter cultivation.
Drilling
To overcome the problems of broadcasting drilling the seeds in lines has come into practice. Weeds can be controlled economically by inter cultivation in line sown crops. In addition, drilling or line sowing facilitates uniform depth of sowing resulting in uniform crop stand. Seed rate can be considerably reduced drilling.
Planting
When individual seeds or seed material is placed in the soil by manual labour, it is called planting.
Generally crops with bigger sized seeds and those needing wider spacing are sown by this method. Eg : Cotton, Maize, Potato, Sugarcane, etc.
Transplanting
It is the process of planting seedlings in prepared main field. Small seeded crops like Tobacco, Chillies, Tomato, etc. are to be sown shallow and frequently irrigated for proper germination. Taking care of the germinating seed or seedlings which are spread over large area is a problem with regard to application of water, weed control, pest control etc. Therefore, seeds are sown in a small area called nursery and all the care is taken to raise the seedlings.
The advantages of transplanting saving in irrigation water, good stand establishment and increase in intensity of cropping. In respect to paddy the nursery is raised in small puddled plots and later transplanted in the main field at required spacing.
Seed Rate
The quality of seed required for sowing in a unit area of land. It is usually expressed in kg/ ha.
Spacing
The distance between crop row ( inter-row spacing) and between plants within the row (intra - row spacing) is referred as spacing. It is expressed in Cms.
Plant Population
Number of plants maintained in an unit area of land is known as plant population/ density. Establishment of optimum plant population is essential to get maximum yield. When sown densely competition among plants is more for growth factors resulting in reduction of yield.
Yield per plant decreases gradually as plant population per unit area is increased. The plant population density vary with the type of soil and crop. Optimum plant population density has to be maintained for securing maximum yield.
Nursery Raising
When more than one crop is to be grown in an year on the same piece of land, the time occupied by each crop has to be reduced.
The seedling growth in the early stages is very slow. Seedlings need extra care for establishing in the field because of their tenderness. Small seeded crops are to be sown shallow and frequently irrigated for proper germination.
Taking care of the germinating seed or seedlings which are spread over large area is a problem with regard to application of water, weed control, pest control etc. Therefore, seeds are sown in a small area called nursery and all the care is taken to raise the seedlings.
Transplanting
Method
Transplanting is usually done manually. In case of rice it is also done mechanically with transplantor provided the nursery is raised through dapog method.
Time
For achieving good results from transplanting, the seedlings are to be transplanted at optimum age and at proper depth. The age of seedlings for transplanting depends on crop and seasonal conditions.
Equipment
For Sowing
Country plough (Akkadi), Seed drill, Ferti-cum-seed drill, Mechanical seed drill are generally used.
Top
Inter Cultivation
It is an operation of soil cultivation performed in standing crop. It is also called as inter culturing. It facilitates good aeration, and better development of root system.
Weeding
Weeding is the process of eliminating competition of unwanted plants to the regular crop in respect to nutrition and moisture. So that crops can be grown profitably. It also facilitates other operations like irrigation and fertilizer application. The advantages of weeding are
Conservation of soil moisture.
Reduced competition for nutrients and water.
Purity of seed can be maintained.
Earthing Up
It is the process of putting the earth or soil just near the base for certain crops like Sugar cane, Cassava, Papaya, Potato, etc. to give support to the plants.
Sugarcane, Papaya, Banana - To avoid lodging
Cassava, Potato - To provide more soil volume for the growth of tubers. Vegetables - To facilitate irrigation.
Ridges and Furrows
It is also included in inter cultivation and generally done at the base of the crop to provide extra support against lodging and also provide soil volume for better growth. It also facilitates uniform spread of moisture during operation of irrigation.
Other Operations
Certain other operations like gap filling, thinning and propping are required as part of inter cultivation operations. In crops like Cotton, Paddy, the gap filling is done in missing areas of the planted main field to maintain optimum population .
Like wise thinning is also practiced in direct sown crops like Jowar, Chillies, to avoid over crowding and to maintain uniform plant stand. In crops like Sugarcane,betelwine, Grapes propping is necessary to support the main crop establishment.
Equipment
Ploughs, blade harrow and weeders.
Weeding : Weeders ( Meesala Guntaka ), Metla Guntaka, Danthi, Star-weeder, Japanese rotary weeder.
Earthing Up : Country plough, Spade.
Top
Harvesting
It is an operation of cutting, picking, plucking, digging or combination of these for removing the useful part or economic end product, part from the plant.
Time
Crops can be harvested at physiological maturity or at harvest maturity. Crop is considered to be at physiological maturity when the translocation of photosynthates are stopped to economic part. If the crop is harvested early, the produce contain high moisture and more immature grains.
The yields will be low due to unfilled grains. Late harvesting results in shattering of grains, germination even before harvesting during rainy season and breakage during processing. Hence, harvesting at correct time is essential to get good quality of grains and higher yields.
Methods
Harvesting is done by either manually or by mechanical.
Manually
Manual harvesting is practiced by cutting crop with sickle or knife. In some crops like Sugarcane, Millets, Paddy the crop is cut with sickles and knives.
In some crops like Groundnut, tuber crops the plants are pulled and economic parts are separated. In other crops like Cotton, Chillies, and fruits the picking is practices to remove the economic parts like kappas, pods and fruits etc.
Mechanically
The combines are used to perform several operations such as cutting the crop, separating the grain from straw, cleaning the grain from chaff and transporting grains to the storage tank. Now a days the harvesting is exclusively for harvesting crops like Paddy and threshing paddy are used. Machines are now available for separating pods from the plants and also for shelling pods (decorticators) in respect to Groundnut crop.
Likewise machines are available for threshing sunflower heads, shelling of castor capsules and sowing of grain.
Drying and Processing
Drying is a process by which moisture content from grain is reduced to safe limit. Drying is done either by using solar energy or by artificial heating.
Processing is the conversion of the produce into a more finished condition before it is offered for sale.
Cleaning
The removal of foreign and dissimilar material by washing, screening, hand-picking, aspiration or any other mechanical means is known as cleaning. It is required to maintain the quality of the produce.
Equipment
Harvesting:Sickle, knife, combines, harvesters
Threshing : Bullocks, Tractors, Decorticators etc.
Drying : Dryers
Top
Post Harvest Field Management
After harvest of the crop, the remnants of the plant viz. Straw, stubbles, leaves, etc. are ploughed into soil to decompose, there by providing source of organic matter for the next season crop.
In some places the flock of sheep are housed (penning) during night time. So that the excreta is collected on the field which is also a good source of organic nutrients.
The left over stubbles, plant residues in crops like Cotton, Chillies, Maize, Sunflower etc. may be burnt as part of soil sterilization as to reduce population of harmful microbes and soil dwelling insect pests.
In crops like Paddy the stubbles may be removed by ploughing after harvest to eliminate hibernating stem borer population. Field bunds may be trimmed to avoid hibernating grass hopper egg masses.
Saturday, January 30, 2010
BRINJAL SEEDMATERIAL1
Seed Material
Seed > Seed Biology > Types of Seed > Categories of Seed > Seed Viability > Seed Dormancy > Seed Treatment > Seed Germination > Seed Storage > Seed Production >
Seed Material
Seed
Sexually or vegetatively propagated planting materials which are used for seeding and planting and as such should be free from any infection (pests and diseases) and should give a good crop stand by good seeding.
Top
Seed Biology
The ovule after fertilization develops into the seed with its coats completely fused together with the developing ovary wall or pericarp. The rice grain has the following structures.
The Pericarp or Fruit Coat
The pericarp is made up of distinct layers of quadrangular cells which forms the epicarp. These cells have slight thickening and are followed by cells which are much compressed and form the mesocarp consisting of two to three layers.
The endocarp is single layer of tube cells. The colour in the rice grain is found in the pericarp layer in the mature stage.
The Seed Coats
Due to the pressure brought out by the developing seed on the pericarp, the testa and tegmen become much pressed down and out of shape. A few layers of such cells below the pericarp can be diagnosed as the integuments of seed coats.
Aleurone Layer
A prominent layer of rectangular cells which contain protein lies next to the seed cents. This layer is known as the aleurone layer. This layer in rice is not coloured unlike in the case of maize.
It has been observed that in coloured varieties of rice, the aleurone layer is thicker than in the white rice varieties. The coarse rice generally have a larger aleurone layer than the finer rice. It has also been found that in poor soils, the aleurone layer is thin and improves in thickness with the fertility of the soil and manure.
The Endosperm
The entire mass of tissue below the aleurone layer is made up of cells which contain plenty of starch grains and these form the endosperm.
The Embryo
The scutellum has an upper free part which has a flesh projection known as ventral scale. Below this upper ventral scale and almost at the middle of the free part there is another out growth which can be called as the 'inner ventral scale' and this inner ventral scale is peculiar to rice embryos only.
On the surface of the embryo this out growth along with the epiblast forms a continuous covering around the plumule. The structure between the scutellum and the plumule is the mesocotyl.
Top
Types of Seeds
Local Varieties
Local varieties are nothing but traditional varieties but which are susceptible to diseases and pests and are having long duration for maturity. In case of rice - Krishnakatukalu, Basangulu.
High Yielding Varieties
High yielding varieties are dwarf varieties and having short duration with resistant to pests and diseases with maximum yield potential.
Eg: I.R -64, I.R - 36, I.R - 50.
Hybrids
A systematic and extensive evaluation of the experimental hybrids, across the country, at the twelve research net work centers has been taken up. About eight hundred experimental hybrids have been evaluated so far. During the wet season ( Kharif), the experimental hybrids are being evaluated at 12 centers, where as during dry season ( rabi ) the experimental hybrids are evaluated in seven centers, located in southern, western and eastern India. Very useful information on performance of hybrids and data on yield and yield components and other auxiliary characters of hybrids across the locations and seasons has been collected over the years.
As a result of concerted, goal oriented, time bound and co-ordinated efforts for the first time in the country, four rice hybrids were released for commercial cultivation during 1994, by the state variety release committee. These are APHR-1 and APHR- 2 for the Telangana and Rayalaseema regions of Andhra pradesh, MGR-1 for the Tamilnadu state and KRH-1 for Karnataka state. Subsequently two more hybrids, viz., CHRH -3 and DRRH-1 were released recently.
Genetically Engineered Seeds
One of the major concerns of cultivating hybrid varieties is that farmers can not use seed from the harvest for their next crop and thus have to buy new seed for each crop. More-over, the cost of hybrid seed is 5-20 times more than that of seeds of inbred varieties. Possibilities for true -to- type multiplication of hybrid rice are being explored through two approaches.
Production of artificial seeds through somatic embryogenesis and
Development of apomictic hybrid rice through wide hybridization and genetic engineering techniques.
Production of Artificial Seeds And Mass Propagation of True- Breeding Hybrids
Artificial seeds, consisting of somatic embryos, enclosed in a protective coating, are being proposed as low-cost, high-volume propagation system. The objective is to produce clonal seeds at a cost comparable with that of producing hybrid seed by conventional methods. Artificial seeds can be produced through somatic embryogenesis. This is the process by which somatic cells develop through the stages of embryogeny to give whole plants without gametic fusion. Somatic embryogenesis has been reported in more than 150 plant species. Somatic embryos have been induced from a variety of plant tissues, such as germinating seedlings shoot meristems, young inflorescence, nucellus, leaf, anther, root and others.
Artificial seed technology involves various steps for the production of somatic embryos and their utilization as commercial propagules.
Optimization of somatic embryogenesis system from cultured cells
Optimization of embryo maturation.
Automation of embryo production.
Production of mature synchronized embryos.
Encapsulation of embryos with necessary adjuvants.
Coating of encapsulated embryos.
Optimization of green house and field conditions for conversion of embryos into plants. And
Delivery system for artificial seeds.
Tissue Culture
"It is the process of growing tissue or cells which are exercised from healthy plants. These tissues are grown on nutrient medium under aseptic conditions."
It is also called as micro propagation. Tissue culture involves several techniques which are
Anther culture
Embryo rescue or ovary culture or Embryo culture.
Protoplast culture and protoplast fusion.
Somatic embryogenesis.
To develop a straight variety or true to type variety in crop plants, pure line selection method is adopted. In this method the seeds of pure lines are selected from homogeneous population of a particular crop and multiplied in the next season. This multiplication process is conducted in different co-ordinated centers and performance of the pure lines is tested. If the performance is good then the state varietal release committee or central varietal release committee releases the variety of that particular crop.
The seed supplied from Agricultural Research Stations, Department of Agriculture, or A.P. State seed corporation is not adequate to meet the requirements of the farmers. So the private seed producers are actively engaged in multiplication and supply of seed to the farmers. But the cost of seed is some times high and the quality also is not maintained. Hence, the farmers are motivated to develop their own seed in respect to varieties.
A seed village concept was introduced and the farmers were encouraged to develop their own seed. In this process the farmer is supplied with limited quantity of foundation seed or certified seed by Research stations or A.P State seed corporation. The farmer will grow variety with the seed supplied in a limited area with good management practices of both plant husbandry and plant protection.
He is also provided with information of the characters of the variety like duration, grain type, the time of panicle initiation etc. He observes the crop from time to time, and the off-types will be removed as and when noticed. He maintained a homogenous type of plants having the varietal characters . while harvesting he eliminates 1 meter crop from all sides of the field to avoid contamination from other varieties grown in neighbor hood and threshed, separately with all the care to prevent admixture of other varieties in threshing floor.
Like wise care will be taken during storage to maintain purity. Such seed will be used continuously year after year for the period of 3 to 4 years. Such seed can also be spread to the co-farmers interested in that specific Variety. After 4 years the farmer can again secure foundation seed or certified seed from the Research station. If it is practiced by atleast 25% of the farmers there will not be any scarcity for pure good seed.
Top
Categories of Seed
Breeder Seed
Breeder seed is seed or vegetative propagating material produced by or under the direct control of the sponsoring plant breeder. It is the basis of the first and recurring increase of foundation seed.
Foundation Seed
It is obtained from breeder seed by direct increase and is the source of registered and or certified seed. Foundation seed is produced on experimental stations of Agricultural Universities and Government forms.
Certified Seeds
Certified seed is produced from foundation or registered seed. It is so known because it is certified by a seed certifying agency.
The certified seed is annually produced by progressive farmers according to standard seed production practices. Certified seed is available for general distribution to farmers for commercial crop production.
Public Hybrid
The hybrids developed by Govt. agencies or Govt. Institutions and Agricultural Universities are called public hybrids.
F1 Hybrid
The resultant seed obtained from crossing of two genetically dissimilar parents is called F1 Hybrids.
Top
Seed Viability
Seed viability is defined as " The capability of a seed to show living properties like germination and growth". Or
It is represented by germination percentage which expresses the number of seedlings that can be produced by a given number of seeds.
The duration of seed viability of rice varieties depends mainly on the following aspects.
Seed moisture % at the time of storage ( 10 to 12% is desirable).
Storage conditions.
Weather conditions ( relative humidity, rainfall)
Seed Moisture
The formation of germination inhibitors was accelerated under reduced oxygen tension and thereby the water content of the seed is increased which deteriorates viability.
Storage
The embryos and endosperm of seeds of different ages were found to respire, the rate being higher in fresh seeds then in older ones. Thus, the old seeds are living but failed to germinate.
The germination and viability of the rice seed are related to the formation of inhibitors during storage.
Weather Conditions
Higher relative humidity and rainfall during the storage periods will deteriorate the seed viability .
The paddy seed viability depends on the weather conditions. The seed viability deteriorate very fast during monsoon season.
Due to this, the seed harvested during rabi season do not retain its viability upto the next rabi season, because it passes through the monsoon weather conditions i.e., from June to October months, where as the kharif harvested seed retains its viability till the next kharif season.
Top
Seed Dormancy
Seed dormancy refers to the resting stage of embryo with low germinability of viable and freshly harvested grains. It is also defined as inability or failure of perfectly matured seed to germinate even when placed under conditions favourable for germination.
Seed dormancy is an important varietal trait in tropical rice where rain fall and high humidity are of frequent occurance during the maturity and harvest periods. Without dormancy, seed would germinate on the standing crop.
Classification of Dormancy
Seed Dormancy at Maturity Stage
Strong seed dormancy at maturity of the crop is a most desirable trait for all the kharif varieties. Some of the rice varieties ( Masuri, I.R -50) have little or no seed dormancy and in periods of wet weather at harvest time, the seed may germinate on the panicle itself.
Duration or Length of Dormancy
This refers to the period from harvest time to the time when the seeds have broken their dormancy.
Intensity of Dormancy
This refers to the level of breaking dormancy by artificial means, i.e., based on the germination percentage after heat treatment for four days at 50 degrees centigrade, and the rice varieties classified based on germination percentage as follows
Strongly Dormant
Varieties in which 50% of dormancy is broken after 4 days of heat treatment.
Moderately Dormant
Varieties in which 50 to 79% of dormancy is broken after 4 days of heat treatment.
Weakly Dormant
Varieties in which above 80% of dormancy is broken after 4 days of heat treatment.
Factors Influencing Dormancy Period
Climatic Conditions
Temperature
Rice produced during the cloudy wet season ( kharif) has a strong dormancy and longer duration of dormancy than that of produced during the summer dry season ( rabi).
This is mainly due to the temperature differences ( higher temperatures in rabi) during the ripening stage of the crop.
Relative Humidity
Higher R.H in atmosphere at maturity stage also increase the degree of dormancy.
Age of Seeds
A wide variation in maturity of seeds can be observed within a hill, i.e., between the mother tiller to tertiary tillers. Similarly there is about 7 to 10 days difference in the maturity of individual seeds within the same panicle.
The seeds in the upper portion of the panicle have earlier maturity than the lower portion of the panicle. So the duration, the dormancy of the individual seed varies with in the hill and also within the panicle.
Genetics of Dormancy
Genetically dormancy is dominant over non-dormancy. Dormancy is inherited independently and can combine with early maturity, photo sensitivity and also with a range of grain types.
Mechanism of Dormancy
Dormancy is the resultant of the slowing down effect of the metabolic process during seed maturation and also by the slow oxidation of the hormone IAA ( Indole Acetic Acid).
Hence, it is essential that any treatment aimed at breaking seed dormancy should hasten the rate of oxidation. Respiration is a strong competitor for the oxygen available for the dormancy breaking reaction.
Breaking Seed Dormancy
Among the several methods available the most suitable method to break seed dormancy at farmers level is nitric acid treatment. - Soaking the seed in o.1 N nitric acid i.e., 6.3 ml per lit. of water for 12 to 24 hours effectively breaks the seed dormancy, where as the varieties like MTU-1001 which is having 8 weeks and above dormancy duration should be treated with higher nitric acid concentration i.e., 10ml per lit. of water.
The seeds can be utilized for sowing immediately after the treatment or they can be dried thoroughly and can be utilized later for sowing.
Top
Seed Treatment
Seed treatment refers to the application of fungicide, insecticide or a combination of both to seeds, such as to disinfect and disinfest them from seed-borne or soil-borne pathogenic organisms and crop pests both in field and in storage. It also refers to the subjecting of seeds to solar energy exposure, immersion in conditioned water etc.
Benefits of Seed Treatment
Prevention of spread of plant diseases.
Seed treatment protects seed from seed rot and seedling blight.
Improves germination.
Provides protection from insect pests.
Controlling soil insects.
Seed Treatment for Breaking Dormancy (Physiological Dormancy)
Dry Storage
For species where dormancy is naturally of short duration, it is often sufficient to store the samples in a dry place for a short period.
Pre-Chilling
The replicates for germination are placed in contact with the moist substratum and kept at low temperature for an initial period. Agricultural and vegetable seeds are kept at a temperature between 5 and 10 degrees Centigrade for an initial period of upto 7 days. In some cases it may be necessary to extend the pre-chilling period or to re-chilling.
Pre-Heating
The replicates for germination should be heated at a temperature not exceeding 40 degree C, with free air circulation, for a period of upto 7 days before they are placed under the prescribed germination conditions.
Light
The test should be illuminated during atleast 8 hours in every twenty four hours cycle and during the high temperature period when the seeds are germinated at alternating temperatures. The light intensity should be approximately 750 - 1250 lux from cool white lamps. Illumination is recommended especially for certain tropical and sub-tropical grasses.
Eg. Chloris gayana, Cynodon
Potassium Nitrate ( KNo3)
The germination substratum may be maintained with 0.2% solution of KNo3. It effectively break the seed dormancy.
Gibberellic Acid( GA3)
This GA3 method is recommended for wheat, oat etc.
Sealed Polythene Envelops
When a high proportion of fresh un-germinated seeds are found at the end of the standard test, then re-test in a sealed polythene envelop of sufficient size will usually induce these seeds to germinate.
In case of rice among the several methods for breaking dormancy are available the most suitable method at farmers level is nitric acid treatment.
Soaking the seed in 0.1 N nitric acid i.e., 6.3 ml per lit. of water for 12 to 24 hours effectively break the seed dormancy, where as the varieties like MTU-1001 which is having 8 weeks and above dormancy duration should be treated with higher nitric acid concentration i.e., 10ml per lit. of water.
The seed can be utilized for sowing immediately after the treatment or they can be dried thoroughly and can be utilized later for sowing.
Seed Treatment for Protection Against Pests and Diseases
Several insecticides and fungicides are used in seed treatment to protect the seeds from pests and diseases. These may be merchandized in combination or individual. In case of paddy the seed is treated with carbendism @ 1 gm / Kg of seed to protect against plant diseases.
The seedling dip in chlorpyriphos 2.5 EC solution @ 1ml /lit of water was suggested to protect against insect pests like rice stem borer, BPH etc.,
Top
Seed Germination
Seed germination is the resumption of growth by the embryo and development of young plant from the seed.
Germination, in a laboratory test, is the emergence and development from the seed embryo of those essential structures which, for the kind of being tested, indicate the ability to develop into a normal plant under favourable conditions in the soil.
Treatments for Promoting Germination
For reasons such as physiological dormancy, hard seededness, inhibitory substances a considerable number of hard or fresh seeds may remain at the end of the germination test.
When a proportion of fresh or dormant seeds remain at the end of the test period, complete germination can often be obtained by re-testing after a period of dry storage. The following methods may also be used to induce germination.
Methods to Overcome Physiological Dormancy
Dry storage
Pre-chilling
Pre-heating
Light treatment
Potassium nitrate ( KNo3) treatment
Gibberellic acid (GA3) treatment
Sealed polythene envelope treatment.
Methods of Removing Inhibitory Substances
Pre - washing
Removal of structures around the seed.
Disinfection of the seed.
Methods for Removing Hard Seededness
Soaking
Mechanical scarification
Acid scarification.
Top
Seed Storage
Purpose of Seed Storage
The purpose of seed storage is to maintain the seed in good physical and physiological condition from the time they are harvested until the time they are planted.
Stages of Seed Storage
The seeds are considered to be in storage from the moment they reach physiological maturity until they germinate or until they are thrown away because they are dead or otherwise worthless.
The entire storage period can be conveniently divided into following stages.
Storage on plants ( physiological maturity until harvest).
Harvest, until processed and stored in a warehouse.
In - storage ( warehouses)
In transit ( Railway wagons, trucks, carts, railway sheds etc.).
In retail stores.
On the user's farm.
Top
Seed Production
Systems and procedures
Why Quality Seed Production?
Because:
Most Important Agricultural Input for a Farmers
For Increased Grain Yield
High Product Quality
Specific requirement
Business for companies
Employment to rural people
Backbone of nation’s economy
Sources Of Seeds
Nucleus Seed- From Breeder of Hybrid /Variety of Proprietor Breeder
Breeder Seed - From Breeder of Hybrid /Variety of Proprietor Breeder
Foundation Seed-From Breeder Seed
Certified/Truthful Seed- From Foundation Seed
Nucleus Seed /Breeder Seed à Foundation Seed Stage I/Stage-II –
Certified/Truthful Seed– Commercial grain for farmer’s consumption
Seed Production Planning
MOTTO: Plan every thing before starting
Requirements for Quality seed production facilities
Good source of BS and F/S- Process start three years in advance before the actual seed production for marketing
Trusted Seed Growers
Qualified dedicated seed production team
Good Seed Processing plant Machinery capable to process the full planned marketing quantity.
Storage facilities including cold storage provision for off season storage, B/S and F/S
Seed Health Laboratory with/without finger printing facilities
Grow Out Farm (GOT)
Reliable, quick and economic transportation facilities
Knowledge of statuary Seed laws
Foundation Seed Production
MOTTO: Purity of Foundation will ensure minimum efforts in field for production of high quality seed
High purity of breeder seed.
For in-house hybrids Inspection of Breeder Seed plot by team of other breeders to produce best quality breeder seed.
For in-house foundation seed of proprietary hybrids involvement of concerned Breeder with F/S production official.
High Quality foundation seed minimizes the efforts for quality seed production.
Plan the production of foundation Seed three years in advance before the actual marketing of Seed.
Inspection of F/S plots by concern Breeders to ensure best quality
Seed Production
MOTTO: Dedicated Team work with Quality consciousness
Selection of reliable growers before start of season
Growers should be knowledgeable,financially sound and willing to take extra efforts to take up seed production operations
Seed production meeting before start of season for allocation of area to different production areas
Development of new production areas
Regular field inspections by seed production team at different stages of crop growth to advise growers on different operations
Random Field inspections by Seed Quality Field Team to monitor the various seed production operations
Midseason review of seed production to go for alternate area if falling short of targets.
Group and mass Seed Field inspections by seed production team at critical stages of crop growth in crucial highly cross pollinated crops like Pearl millet, maize sunflower and Jowar
Harvesting and threshing instructions to growers to avoid admixtures.
Other important operations / instructions as per crop growth
Seed Processing Plant Operations
MOTTO: Quality of processed seed should reflect on Market
Most important function after seed production
Overhauling and servicing of plant Machinery before start of season. Replace worn-out parts. Keep spares for emergencies. Extra Important implements to be kept in godown.
Trained operators of plant machinery
Separate godown for incoming, processed, sales return and ruminant seed.
Co-ordination with seed health team for sampling, dispatches and movement of Seed
Proper up storage and placement of screens,
Proper records of processed, remnant and processing losses to build full faith of seed grower in company
Record of seed arrival, dispatch and sales returns
Seed Health Laboratory
MOTTO: To ensure that only and only quality seed reaches the growers .
All facilities for testing of seed produced
To ensure that every lot of seed is tested for all the quality parameters of seed health before the dispatch of seed.
Trained qualified officicial for sampling of seed during processing of seed lots
Testing of all seed lots for germination, seed vigor, infestations and purity etc
Confidentiality of seed sampling and testing process
Seed health laboratory person to be trained in such a way that he catches the problems of seed even visually and to be very careful while testing these suspected lots for seed health.
Grow out tests (GOT)
MOTTO: To Test the Genetic purity of each and every seed lot
Allocation of area before the season to create all the facility required.
As no. of lots are known before the arrival of samples hence infra structure should be kept ready before testing season (maximum Kharif)
Highly technical qualified staff for the Grow out Tests.
Regular institutional Training of staff to update their knowledge
All seed lots of hybrids, parental lines and in-house varieties are to be tested through grow out tests.(GOT)
To strictly adhere to the plant characters of hybrids and varieties/lines
while taking the plant purity observations.
In high value crop seeds like sunflower and vegetable hybrids the Finger Printing technology to be used to check the Genetic purity of seed.
In case of crops where the time gap between seed arrival and dispatch is very less the finger printing has to be adopted to avoid any problem in field.
Do not look at short term gains while dispatching of seed at the times of Urgency of seed to market.
Handling of Seed complaints
Motto: Find the root cause of problem and rectify it immediately.
Mechanism to check the authenticity of seed complaints
Special cell to deal with seed complaints through marketing network.
To keep records of history of all seed lots to be kept to trace the reasons for complaints.
Find the reason for the complaints
If the faults found in production/processing/Grow out tests, mechanism to address those problems
Handling of Seed Seed law Enforcement Agencies
Motto: Hassle free marketing of seeds
To Deal with Seed law Enforcement agencies (Agric. Department and Court cases seed failures and consumers forum cases):
Separate person to deal with court cases
To keep the records ofall seed lots.
Knowledge of seed laws to ensure there no convictions.
Collection of judgments by various courts in country
Court cases can be handled easily with experience of system.
Not to accept faults in courts in seed failures but to fight it out
Seed Logistics
Motto: Placement of seed at market in time, safely with least costs in minimum time
Selection of good reliable transporters through tendering process required for bringing the raw seed from field and dispatch of packed seed in bulk.
For the small packings dispatches selection of transporters with maximum reach to destinations
Emphasis on cost reduction through proper planning of dispatches.
Safe movement of material by sending through quality vehicles with full protection
Use of railways instead of road transport for bulk transportation and small important seeds to far off locations
Monitoring of movement of seed till it reaches the destination
Seed > Seed Biology > Types of Seed > Categories of Seed > Seed Viability > Seed Dormancy > Seed Treatment > Seed Germination > Seed Storage > Seed Production >
Seed Material
Seed
Sexually or vegetatively propagated planting materials which are used for seeding and planting and as such should be free from any infection (pests and diseases) and should give a good crop stand by good seeding.
Top
Seed Biology
The ovule after fertilization develops into the seed with its coats completely fused together with the developing ovary wall or pericarp. The rice grain has the following structures.
The Pericarp or Fruit Coat
The pericarp is made up of distinct layers of quadrangular cells which forms the epicarp. These cells have slight thickening and are followed by cells which are much compressed and form the mesocarp consisting of two to three layers.
The endocarp is single layer of tube cells. The colour in the rice grain is found in the pericarp layer in the mature stage.
The Seed Coats
Due to the pressure brought out by the developing seed on the pericarp, the testa and tegmen become much pressed down and out of shape. A few layers of such cells below the pericarp can be diagnosed as the integuments of seed coats.
Aleurone Layer
A prominent layer of rectangular cells which contain protein lies next to the seed cents. This layer is known as the aleurone layer. This layer in rice is not coloured unlike in the case of maize.
It has been observed that in coloured varieties of rice, the aleurone layer is thicker than in the white rice varieties. The coarse rice generally have a larger aleurone layer than the finer rice. It has also been found that in poor soils, the aleurone layer is thin and improves in thickness with the fertility of the soil and manure.
The Endosperm
The entire mass of tissue below the aleurone layer is made up of cells which contain plenty of starch grains and these form the endosperm.
The Embryo
The scutellum has an upper free part which has a flesh projection known as ventral scale. Below this upper ventral scale and almost at the middle of the free part there is another out growth which can be called as the 'inner ventral scale' and this inner ventral scale is peculiar to rice embryos only.
On the surface of the embryo this out growth along with the epiblast forms a continuous covering around the plumule. The structure between the scutellum and the plumule is the mesocotyl.
Top
Types of Seeds
Local Varieties
Local varieties are nothing but traditional varieties but which are susceptible to diseases and pests and are having long duration for maturity. In case of rice - Krishnakatukalu, Basangulu.
High Yielding Varieties
High yielding varieties are dwarf varieties and having short duration with resistant to pests and diseases with maximum yield potential.
Eg: I.R -64, I.R - 36, I.R - 50.
Hybrids
A systematic and extensive evaluation of the experimental hybrids, across the country, at the twelve research net work centers has been taken up. About eight hundred experimental hybrids have been evaluated so far. During the wet season ( Kharif), the experimental hybrids are being evaluated at 12 centers, where as during dry season ( rabi ) the experimental hybrids are evaluated in seven centers, located in southern, western and eastern India. Very useful information on performance of hybrids and data on yield and yield components and other auxiliary characters of hybrids across the locations and seasons has been collected over the years.
As a result of concerted, goal oriented, time bound and co-ordinated efforts for the first time in the country, four rice hybrids were released for commercial cultivation during 1994, by the state variety release committee. These are APHR-1 and APHR- 2 for the Telangana and Rayalaseema regions of Andhra pradesh, MGR-1 for the Tamilnadu state and KRH-1 for Karnataka state. Subsequently two more hybrids, viz., CHRH -3 and DRRH-1 were released recently.
Genetically Engineered Seeds
One of the major concerns of cultivating hybrid varieties is that farmers can not use seed from the harvest for their next crop and thus have to buy new seed for each crop. More-over, the cost of hybrid seed is 5-20 times more than that of seeds of inbred varieties. Possibilities for true -to- type multiplication of hybrid rice are being explored through two approaches.
Production of artificial seeds through somatic embryogenesis and
Development of apomictic hybrid rice through wide hybridization and genetic engineering techniques.
Production of Artificial Seeds And Mass Propagation of True- Breeding Hybrids
Artificial seeds, consisting of somatic embryos, enclosed in a protective coating, are being proposed as low-cost, high-volume propagation system. The objective is to produce clonal seeds at a cost comparable with that of producing hybrid seed by conventional methods. Artificial seeds can be produced through somatic embryogenesis. This is the process by which somatic cells develop through the stages of embryogeny to give whole plants without gametic fusion. Somatic embryogenesis has been reported in more than 150 plant species. Somatic embryos have been induced from a variety of plant tissues, such as germinating seedlings shoot meristems, young inflorescence, nucellus, leaf, anther, root and others.
Artificial seed technology involves various steps for the production of somatic embryos and their utilization as commercial propagules.
Optimization of somatic embryogenesis system from cultured cells
Optimization of embryo maturation.
Automation of embryo production.
Production of mature synchronized embryos.
Encapsulation of embryos with necessary adjuvants.
Coating of encapsulated embryos.
Optimization of green house and field conditions for conversion of embryos into plants. And
Delivery system for artificial seeds.
Tissue Culture
"It is the process of growing tissue or cells which are exercised from healthy plants. These tissues are grown on nutrient medium under aseptic conditions."
It is also called as micro propagation. Tissue culture involves several techniques which are
Anther culture
Embryo rescue or ovary culture or Embryo culture.
Protoplast culture and protoplast fusion.
Somatic embryogenesis.
To develop a straight variety or true to type variety in crop plants, pure line selection method is adopted. In this method the seeds of pure lines are selected from homogeneous population of a particular crop and multiplied in the next season. This multiplication process is conducted in different co-ordinated centers and performance of the pure lines is tested. If the performance is good then the state varietal release committee or central varietal release committee releases the variety of that particular crop.
The seed supplied from Agricultural Research Stations, Department of Agriculture, or A.P. State seed corporation is not adequate to meet the requirements of the farmers. So the private seed producers are actively engaged in multiplication and supply of seed to the farmers. But the cost of seed is some times high and the quality also is not maintained. Hence, the farmers are motivated to develop their own seed in respect to varieties.
A seed village concept was introduced and the farmers were encouraged to develop their own seed. In this process the farmer is supplied with limited quantity of foundation seed or certified seed by Research stations or A.P State seed corporation. The farmer will grow variety with the seed supplied in a limited area with good management practices of both plant husbandry and plant protection.
He is also provided with information of the characters of the variety like duration, grain type, the time of panicle initiation etc. He observes the crop from time to time, and the off-types will be removed as and when noticed. He maintained a homogenous type of plants having the varietal characters . while harvesting he eliminates 1 meter crop from all sides of the field to avoid contamination from other varieties grown in neighbor hood and threshed, separately with all the care to prevent admixture of other varieties in threshing floor.
Like wise care will be taken during storage to maintain purity. Such seed will be used continuously year after year for the period of 3 to 4 years. Such seed can also be spread to the co-farmers interested in that specific Variety. After 4 years the farmer can again secure foundation seed or certified seed from the Research station. If it is practiced by atleast 25% of the farmers there will not be any scarcity for pure good seed.
Top
Categories of Seed
Breeder Seed
Breeder seed is seed or vegetative propagating material produced by or under the direct control of the sponsoring plant breeder. It is the basis of the first and recurring increase of foundation seed.
Foundation Seed
It is obtained from breeder seed by direct increase and is the source of registered and or certified seed. Foundation seed is produced on experimental stations of Agricultural Universities and Government forms.
Certified Seeds
Certified seed is produced from foundation or registered seed. It is so known because it is certified by a seed certifying agency.
The certified seed is annually produced by progressive farmers according to standard seed production practices. Certified seed is available for general distribution to farmers for commercial crop production.
Public Hybrid
The hybrids developed by Govt. agencies or Govt. Institutions and Agricultural Universities are called public hybrids.
F1 Hybrid
The resultant seed obtained from crossing of two genetically dissimilar parents is called F1 Hybrids.
Top
Seed Viability
Seed viability is defined as " The capability of a seed to show living properties like germination and growth". Or
It is represented by germination percentage which expresses the number of seedlings that can be produced by a given number of seeds.
The duration of seed viability of rice varieties depends mainly on the following aspects.
Seed moisture % at the time of storage ( 10 to 12% is desirable).
Storage conditions.
Weather conditions ( relative humidity, rainfall)
Seed Moisture
The formation of germination inhibitors was accelerated under reduced oxygen tension and thereby the water content of the seed is increased which deteriorates viability.
Storage
The embryos and endosperm of seeds of different ages were found to respire, the rate being higher in fresh seeds then in older ones. Thus, the old seeds are living but failed to germinate.
The germination and viability of the rice seed are related to the formation of inhibitors during storage.
Weather Conditions
Higher relative humidity and rainfall during the storage periods will deteriorate the seed viability .
The paddy seed viability depends on the weather conditions. The seed viability deteriorate very fast during monsoon season.
Due to this, the seed harvested during rabi season do not retain its viability upto the next rabi season, because it passes through the monsoon weather conditions i.e., from June to October months, where as the kharif harvested seed retains its viability till the next kharif season.
Top
Seed Dormancy
Seed dormancy refers to the resting stage of embryo with low germinability of viable and freshly harvested grains. It is also defined as inability or failure of perfectly matured seed to germinate even when placed under conditions favourable for germination.
Seed dormancy is an important varietal trait in tropical rice where rain fall and high humidity are of frequent occurance during the maturity and harvest periods. Without dormancy, seed would germinate on the standing crop.
Classification of Dormancy
Seed Dormancy at Maturity Stage
Strong seed dormancy at maturity of the crop is a most desirable trait for all the kharif varieties. Some of the rice varieties ( Masuri, I.R -50) have little or no seed dormancy and in periods of wet weather at harvest time, the seed may germinate on the panicle itself.
Duration or Length of Dormancy
This refers to the period from harvest time to the time when the seeds have broken their dormancy.
Intensity of Dormancy
This refers to the level of breaking dormancy by artificial means, i.e., based on the germination percentage after heat treatment for four days at 50 degrees centigrade, and the rice varieties classified based on germination percentage as follows
Strongly Dormant
Varieties in which 50% of dormancy is broken after 4 days of heat treatment.
Moderately Dormant
Varieties in which 50 to 79% of dormancy is broken after 4 days of heat treatment.
Weakly Dormant
Varieties in which above 80% of dormancy is broken after 4 days of heat treatment.
Factors Influencing Dormancy Period
Climatic Conditions
Temperature
Rice produced during the cloudy wet season ( kharif) has a strong dormancy and longer duration of dormancy than that of produced during the summer dry season ( rabi).
This is mainly due to the temperature differences ( higher temperatures in rabi) during the ripening stage of the crop.
Relative Humidity
Higher R.H in atmosphere at maturity stage also increase the degree of dormancy.
Age of Seeds
A wide variation in maturity of seeds can be observed within a hill, i.e., between the mother tiller to tertiary tillers. Similarly there is about 7 to 10 days difference in the maturity of individual seeds within the same panicle.
The seeds in the upper portion of the panicle have earlier maturity than the lower portion of the panicle. So the duration, the dormancy of the individual seed varies with in the hill and also within the panicle.
Genetics of Dormancy
Genetically dormancy is dominant over non-dormancy. Dormancy is inherited independently and can combine with early maturity, photo sensitivity and also with a range of grain types.
Mechanism of Dormancy
Dormancy is the resultant of the slowing down effect of the metabolic process during seed maturation and also by the slow oxidation of the hormone IAA ( Indole Acetic Acid).
Hence, it is essential that any treatment aimed at breaking seed dormancy should hasten the rate of oxidation. Respiration is a strong competitor for the oxygen available for the dormancy breaking reaction.
Breaking Seed Dormancy
Among the several methods available the most suitable method to break seed dormancy at farmers level is nitric acid treatment. - Soaking the seed in o.1 N nitric acid i.e., 6.3 ml per lit. of water for 12 to 24 hours effectively breaks the seed dormancy, where as the varieties like MTU-1001 which is having 8 weeks and above dormancy duration should be treated with higher nitric acid concentration i.e., 10ml per lit. of water.
The seeds can be utilized for sowing immediately after the treatment or they can be dried thoroughly and can be utilized later for sowing.
Top
Seed Treatment
Seed treatment refers to the application of fungicide, insecticide or a combination of both to seeds, such as to disinfect and disinfest them from seed-borne or soil-borne pathogenic organisms and crop pests both in field and in storage. It also refers to the subjecting of seeds to solar energy exposure, immersion in conditioned water etc.
Benefits of Seed Treatment
Prevention of spread of plant diseases.
Seed treatment protects seed from seed rot and seedling blight.
Improves germination.
Provides protection from insect pests.
Controlling soil insects.
Seed Treatment for Breaking Dormancy (Physiological Dormancy)
Dry Storage
For species where dormancy is naturally of short duration, it is often sufficient to store the samples in a dry place for a short period.
Pre-Chilling
The replicates for germination are placed in contact with the moist substratum and kept at low temperature for an initial period. Agricultural and vegetable seeds are kept at a temperature between 5 and 10 degrees Centigrade for an initial period of upto 7 days. In some cases it may be necessary to extend the pre-chilling period or to re-chilling.
Pre-Heating
The replicates for germination should be heated at a temperature not exceeding 40 degree C, with free air circulation, for a period of upto 7 days before they are placed under the prescribed germination conditions.
Light
The test should be illuminated during atleast 8 hours in every twenty four hours cycle and during the high temperature period when the seeds are germinated at alternating temperatures. The light intensity should be approximately 750 - 1250 lux from cool white lamps. Illumination is recommended especially for certain tropical and sub-tropical grasses.
Eg. Chloris gayana, Cynodon
Potassium Nitrate ( KNo3)
The germination substratum may be maintained with 0.2% solution of KNo3. It effectively break the seed dormancy.
Gibberellic Acid( GA3)
This GA3 method is recommended for wheat, oat etc.
Sealed Polythene Envelops
When a high proportion of fresh un-germinated seeds are found at the end of the standard test, then re-test in a sealed polythene envelop of sufficient size will usually induce these seeds to germinate.
In case of rice among the several methods for breaking dormancy are available the most suitable method at farmers level is nitric acid treatment.
Soaking the seed in 0.1 N nitric acid i.e., 6.3 ml per lit. of water for 12 to 24 hours effectively break the seed dormancy, where as the varieties like MTU-1001 which is having 8 weeks and above dormancy duration should be treated with higher nitric acid concentration i.e., 10ml per lit. of water.
The seed can be utilized for sowing immediately after the treatment or they can be dried thoroughly and can be utilized later for sowing.
Seed Treatment for Protection Against Pests and Diseases
Several insecticides and fungicides are used in seed treatment to protect the seeds from pests and diseases. These may be merchandized in combination or individual. In case of paddy the seed is treated with carbendism @ 1 gm / Kg of seed to protect against plant diseases.
The seedling dip in chlorpyriphos 2.5 EC solution @ 1ml /lit of water was suggested to protect against insect pests like rice stem borer, BPH etc.,
Top
Seed Germination
Seed germination is the resumption of growth by the embryo and development of young plant from the seed.
Germination, in a laboratory test, is the emergence and development from the seed embryo of those essential structures which, for the kind of being tested, indicate the ability to develop into a normal plant under favourable conditions in the soil.
Treatments for Promoting Germination
For reasons such as physiological dormancy, hard seededness, inhibitory substances a considerable number of hard or fresh seeds may remain at the end of the germination test.
When a proportion of fresh or dormant seeds remain at the end of the test period, complete germination can often be obtained by re-testing after a period of dry storage. The following methods may also be used to induce germination.
Methods to Overcome Physiological Dormancy
Dry storage
Pre-chilling
Pre-heating
Light treatment
Potassium nitrate ( KNo3) treatment
Gibberellic acid (GA3) treatment
Sealed polythene envelope treatment.
Methods of Removing Inhibitory Substances
Pre - washing
Removal of structures around the seed.
Disinfection of the seed.
Methods for Removing Hard Seededness
Soaking
Mechanical scarification
Acid scarification.
Top
Seed Storage
Purpose of Seed Storage
The purpose of seed storage is to maintain the seed in good physical and physiological condition from the time they are harvested until the time they are planted.
Stages of Seed Storage
The seeds are considered to be in storage from the moment they reach physiological maturity until they germinate or until they are thrown away because they are dead or otherwise worthless.
The entire storage period can be conveniently divided into following stages.
Storage on plants ( physiological maturity until harvest).
Harvest, until processed and stored in a warehouse.
In - storage ( warehouses)
In transit ( Railway wagons, trucks, carts, railway sheds etc.).
In retail stores.
On the user's farm.
Top
Seed Production
Systems and procedures
Why Quality Seed Production?
Because:
Most Important Agricultural Input for a Farmers
For Increased Grain Yield
High Product Quality
Specific requirement
Business for companies
Employment to rural people
Backbone of nation’s economy
Sources Of Seeds
Nucleus Seed- From Breeder of Hybrid /Variety of Proprietor Breeder
Breeder Seed - From Breeder of Hybrid /Variety of Proprietor Breeder
Foundation Seed-From Breeder Seed
Certified/Truthful Seed- From Foundation Seed
Nucleus Seed /Breeder Seed à Foundation Seed Stage I/Stage-II –
Certified/Truthful Seed– Commercial grain for farmer’s consumption
Seed Production Planning
MOTTO: Plan every thing before starting
Requirements for Quality seed production facilities
Good source of BS and F/S- Process start three years in advance before the actual seed production for marketing
Trusted Seed Growers
Qualified dedicated seed production team
Good Seed Processing plant Machinery capable to process the full planned marketing quantity.
Storage facilities including cold storage provision for off season storage, B/S and F/S
Seed Health Laboratory with/without finger printing facilities
Grow Out Farm (GOT)
Reliable, quick and economic transportation facilities
Knowledge of statuary Seed laws
Foundation Seed Production
MOTTO: Purity of Foundation will ensure minimum efforts in field for production of high quality seed
High purity of breeder seed.
For in-house hybrids Inspection of Breeder Seed plot by team of other breeders to produce best quality breeder seed.
For in-house foundation seed of proprietary hybrids involvement of concerned Breeder with F/S production official.
High Quality foundation seed minimizes the efforts for quality seed production.
Plan the production of foundation Seed three years in advance before the actual marketing of Seed.
Inspection of F/S plots by concern Breeders to ensure best quality
Seed Production
MOTTO: Dedicated Team work with Quality consciousness
Selection of reliable growers before start of season
Growers should be knowledgeable,financially sound and willing to take extra efforts to take up seed production operations
Seed production meeting before start of season for allocation of area to different production areas
Development of new production areas
Regular field inspections by seed production team at different stages of crop growth to advise growers on different operations
Random Field inspections by Seed Quality Field Team to monitor the various seed production operations
Midseason review of seed production to go for alternate area if falling short of targets.
Group and mass Seed Field inspections by seed production team at critical stages of crop growth in crucial highly cross pollinated crops like Pearl millet, maize sunflower and Jowar
Harvesting and threshing instructions to growers to avoid admixtures.
Other important operations / instructions as per crop growth
Seed Processing Plant Operations
MOTTO: Quality of processed seed should reflect on Market
Most important function after seed production
Overhauling and servicing of plant Machinery before start of season. Replace worn-out parts. Keep spares for emergencies. Extra Important implements to be kept in godown.
Trained operators of plant machinery
Separate godown for incoming, processed, sales return and ruminant seed.
Co-ordination with seed health team for sampling, dispatches and movement of Seed
Proper up storage and placement of screens,
Proper records of processed, remnant and processing losses to build full faith of seed grower in company
Record of seed arrival, dispatch and sales returns
Seed Health Laboratory
MOTTO: To ensure that only and only quality seed reaches the growers .
All facilities for testing of seed produced
To ensure that every lot of seed is tested for all the quality parameters of seed health before the dispatch of seed.
Trained qualified officicial for sampling of seed during processing of seed lots
Testing of all seed lots for germination, seed vigor, infestations and purity etc
Confidentiality of seed sampling and testing process
Seed health laboratory person to be trained in such a way that he catches the problems of seed even visually and to be very careful while testing these suspected lots for seed health.
Grow out tests (GOT)
MOTTO: To Test the Genetic purity of each and every seed lot
Allocation of area before the season to create all the facility required.
As no. of lots are known before the arrival of samples hence infra structure should be kept ready before testing season (maximum Kharif)
Highly technical qualified staff for the Grow out Tests.
Regular institutional Training of staff to update their knowledge
All seed lots of hybrids, parental lines and in-house varieties are to be tested through grow out tests.(GOT)
To strictly adhere to the plant characters of hybrids and varieties/lines
while taking the plant purity observations.
In high value crop seeds like sunflower and vegetable hybrids the Finger Printing technology to be used to check the Genetic purity of seed.
In case of crops where the time gap between seed arrival and dispatch is very less the finger printing has to be adopted to avoid any problem in field.
Do not look at short term gains while dispatching of seed at the times of Urgency of seed to market.
Handling of Seed complaints
Motto: Find the root cause of problem and rectify it immediately.
Mechanism to check the authenticity of seed complaints
Special cell to deal with seed complaints through marketing network.
To keep records of history of all seed lots to be kept to trace the reasons for complaints.
Find the reason for the complaints
If the faults found in production/processing/Grow out tests, mechanism to address those problems
Handling of Seed Seed law Enforcement Agencies
Motto: Hassle free marketing of seeds
To Deal with Seed law Enforcement agencies (Agric. Department and Court cases seed failures and consumers forum cases):
Separate person to deal with court cases
To keep the records ofall seed lots.
Knowledge of seed laws to ensure there no convictions.
Collection of judgments by various courts in country
Court cases can be handled easily with experience of system.
Not to accept faults in courts in seed failures but to fight it out
Seed Logistics
Motto: Placement of seed at market in time, safely with least costs in minimum time
Selection of good reliable transporters through tendering process required for bringing the raw seed from field and dispatch of packed seed in bulk.
For the small packings dispatches selection of transporters with maximum reach to destinations
Emphasis on cost reduction through proper planning of dispatches.
Safe movement of material by sending through quality vehicles with full protection
Use of railways instead of road transport for bulk transportation and small important seeds to far off locations
Monitoring of movement of seed till it reaches the destination
Tuesday, January 26, 2010
MANGO PRODUCTS
Mango Pulp
Mango Pulp [Hyderabad]
The natural taste of mango, round the year! Imagine your desserts, ice creams, and sweets enhanced by the richness of mangoes. A mouth watering thought, right? But you may say, mangoes are available only in summer. Well, now it?s available at a grocery store near you, at your own will and wish. Soma Mango Pulp from the house of Priya brings to you the goodness of mangoes, all round the year. A....
Ratnagiri Alphonso Mango Pulp / Puree - Natural [Pune]
Hot Packed in OTS Cans TSS 17-19? Brix, Acidity : 0.4-0.7% as citric Acid, pH 3.8-4.2 Without any additives. packing:- 6 cans X 3.1 Kg each per carton. 1008 cartons per 20' Dry container.....
Ratnagiri Alphonso Mango Pulp / Puree - Sweetened (Consumer pack) [Pune]
Hot Packed in OTS Cans TSS 24-26? Brix, Acidity : 0.4-0.5% as citric Acid, pH 3.8-4.2 packing:- 24 cans x 850 gms each per carton 900 cartons per 20' Dry container or 12 cans x 850 gms shrink wrapped 1700 units per 20' Dry container....
Totapuri Mango Pulp / Puree Natural [Pune]
Hot Packed in OTS Cans TSS 14-16? Brix Acidity : 0.4-0.6% as citric Acid, pH 3.8-4.2 Without any additives packing:- 6 cans X 3.1 Kg each per carton. 1008 cartons per 20' Dry container or 215 Kg Aseptic Bags in Steel Drums 80 Drums per 20' Container....
Totapuri Mango Pulp / Puree Concentrate [Pune]
TSS 28? Brix Acidity : 0.8-1.0% as citric Acid pH 3.8-4.2 packing:-220 Kg Aseptic Bags in Steel Drums 80 Drums per 20' Container.....
Alphonso Mango Pulp [Mumbai]
Colour:- Bright Yellowish Orange Flavour:- Pleasant Ripe Natural Alphonso Mango Texture:- Typical Soft Consistency:- 11 +/- 1.0 (Bostwick CM/30 sec) Vaccuum:- 6" min Brix :- 17* min pH :- 3.5 - 4.5 Acidity :- 0.5% Min as Citric Acid ....
MANGO PULP [Mumbai]
A limited quantity of Devgad Alphonso Mango Pulp is manufactured by us. It is a exceptional product and available on orders in the beginning of the season. The specifications can be catered to meet various end uses Alphonso Mango Pulp and Totapuri Mango Pulp of South Indian origin is manufactured at HACCP certified units. Indicative specifications of product and packing are attached below. Prod....
Mango Pulp and Guava Pulp [Krishnagiri]
We would like to introduce ourselves as LOYAL FOOD INTERNATIONAL is one of the leading Manufacturer and Exporters of Mango Pulp. We are in the business of Fruit Pulps and Concentrates for the last 7 years. We regularly export large quantities of Fruit Pulps and Concentrates to our valued customers in Europe, Middle East & East Asia countries, etc and they are satisfied with our quality of products....
Mango Pulp and Guava Pulp [Krishnagiri, TN, India]
We would like to introduce ourselves as LOYAL FOOD INTERNATIONAL is one of the leading Manufacturer and Exporters of Mango Pulp. We are in the business of Fruit Pulps and Concentrates for the last 7 years. We regularly export large quantities of Fruit Pulps and Concentrates to our valued customers in Europe, Middle East & East Asia countries, etc and they are satisfied with our quality of products....
Mango Pulp and Guava Pulp [Krishnagiri]
It is our great pleasure to introduce ourselves (Loyal Food International) as one the leading manufacturer and exporters of mango pulp and guava pulp located at Krishnagiri, Tamilnadu, India. Krishnagiri is the world famous for Mango Fruit and for Mango Pulp. Over 40,000 hectares are under mango cultivation, producing 3.5 lacs MT of Mango Fruits every year. Our HACCP certified Aseptic and Canning ....
New Crop Mango Pulp [Krishnagiri]
It is our great pleasure to introduce ourselves (Loyal Food International) as one the leading manufacturer and exporters of mango pulp and guava pulp located at Krishnagiri, Tamilnadu, India. Krishnagiri is the world famous for Mango Fruit and for Mango Pulp. Over 40,000 hectares are under mango cultivation, producing 3.5 lacs MT of Mango Fruits every year. Our HACCP certified Aseptic and Canning ....
Mango Pulp [Chennai]
Commodity : Mango Pulp (100% Natural) ?Totapuri Mango Pulp? Ingredients : Mango Pulp and Citric Acid Certification : HACCP Certified ....
New Crop Mango Pulp and Guava Pulp - loyalfood.com [Bangalore]
We have our range of Mango and Guava Pulp as detailed below: Natural Totapuri and Alphonso Mango Pulp Natural Pink and White Guava Pulp Sweetened Alphonso and Totapuri Mango Pulp Mango Pulp Packing in A10 OTS cans (3.1kg) ....
WE ARE EXPORTER AND MANUFACTURER OF KESAR MANGO, MANGO PULP, PAPAIN, ONION, GARLIC, SESAME SEED ETC [Junagadh]
WE ARE EXPORTER AND MANUFACTURER OF KESAR MANGO, MANGO PULP, PAPAIN, ONION, GARLIC, SESAME SEED ETC....
FRUIT PULP, MANGO PULP, GUAVA PULP [Chennai]
Product Specifications Packing Totapuri Mango Pulp / Puree Natural Hot Packed in OTS Cans TSS 14-16 Deg Brix Acidity : 0.4-0.5 as citric Acid 6 cans X 3.1 Kg each per carton. 1000 cartons or 24 cans x 850 gms each per carton 900 cartons per 20' Dry container White Guava Pulp / Puree Natural Hot Packed in OTS Cans TSS 9-10 Deg Brix Acidity : 0.4-0.45% as citric Acid 6 cans X 3.1 Kg each per ....
New Crop Mango Pulp and Guava Pulp [Krishnagiri]
It is our great pleasure to introduce ourselves Loyal Food International as one the leading manufacturer and exporters of mango pulp and guava pulp located at Krishnagiri, Tamilnadu, India. Krishnagiri is the world famous for Mango Fruit and for Mango Pulp. Over 40,000 hectares are under mango cultivation, producing 3.5 lacs MT of Mango Fruits every year. Our HACCP certified Aseptic and Canning Fa....
Krishnagiri Totapuri Mango Pulp [Krishnagiri]
It is our great pleasure to introduce ourselves Loyal Food International as one the leading manufacturer and exporters of mango pulp and guava pulp located at Krishnagiri, Tamilnadu, India. Krishnagiri is the world famous for Mango Fruit and for Mango Pulp. Over 40,000 hectares are under mango cultivation, producing 3.5 lacs MT of Mango Fruits every year. Our HACCP certified Aseptic and Canning Fa....
Chittoor Mango Pulp [Krishnagiri]
It is our great pleasure to introduce ourselves Loyal Food International as one the leading manufacturer and exporters of mango pulp and guava pulp located at Krishnagiri, Tamilnadu, India. Krishnagiri is the world famous for Mango Fruit and for Mango Pulp. Over 40,000 hectares are under mango cultivation, producing 3.5 lacs MT of Mango Fruits every year. Our HACCP certified Aseptic and Canning Fa....
Mango pulp [Dombivli]
We trade in the best Quality mango pulps such as Alphonso, Kesar, and Totapuri mango pulps procured from best cultivating areas in India respectively. Packing in 3.1 kg tins or 215 kg aseptic drums. ....
Mango Pulp
MANGO [Cairo]
MANGO OFFER
Trade Brand : Egyptian mango fresh fruit
Origin : delta Egypt
Packing :5 kg / carton
Container capacity: 12 tons [10 pallets each pallet 240 carton] 20' FCL
Incoterm : F.O.B
Availability : August -November
Quantity : Depends on contract
Shipping : At season
Loading : Any Egyptian port [by air or by sea]
....
RAW-MANGO CUTTING MACHINE [Pune]
A new model is introduced this year. It is a perfect combination of square cutting [cubbing] without damaging green skin of raw mango. The cutting machine
is indigenously manufactured.
It is A maintenance free simple application unit. In feed conveyor is attached with machine to get the perfect out-put.
Compact in size & easy for working . 85% saving of man power. Long life SS Cutting b....
Spray Dried Mango Powder [Mumbai]
Orange Yellow, Free Flowing Powder; Free from extraneous matter and lumps. Taste & Odour Typical of rich and ripe Mango; free from off-flavour and odours. ....
MANGO CUTTING MACHINE [Kolhapur]
It is designed specially for cutting Mangoes. It is small in size and cuts 100kg. Mangoes in one hour. It''s capacity is 3HP.....
RAW MANGO FINE CUTTING MACHINE [Kolhapur]
Designed and developed specially for the pickles. Manufactures for fine cutting of Raw Mangoes. ....
MANGO PICKLE [Pune]
Ingredients :- Pieces of Mango, Salt, Cotten Seed Oil, Ground Spices, (Chilly, Turmmeric, Mustard) Asafoetida. Price:-Rs.225/- for 5kg. ....
Mango Pickle [New Delhi]
Net Weight : 400 gm. or 14.12 Oz. Ingredients : Mango Pieces, Salt, Edible oil, Mustard, Red Chilli, Fenugreek, Fennel, Kalongi, Mix Spices, Lime Juice and Acetic Acid. ....
Mango Pulp [Hyderabad]
The natural taste of mango, round the year! Imagine your desserts, ice creams, and sweets enhanced by the richness of mangoes. A mouth watering thought, right? But you may say, mangoes are available only in summer. Well, now it?s available at a grocery store near you, at your own will and wish. Soma Mango Pulp from the house of Priya brings to you the goodness of mangoes, all round the year. A....
Ratnagiri Alphonso Mango Pulp / Puree - Natural [Pune]
Hot Packed in OTS Cans TSS 17-19? Brix, Acidity : 0.4-0.7% as citric Acid, pH 3.8-4.2 Without any additives. packing:- 6 cans X 3.1 Kg each per carton. 1008 cartons per 20' Dry container.....
Ratnagiri Alphonso Mango Pulp / Puree - Sweetened (Consumer pack) [Pune]
Hot Packed in OTS Cans TSS 24-26? Brix, Acidity : 0.4-0.5% as citric Acid, pH 3.8-4.2 packing:- 24 cans x 850 gms each per carton 900 cartons per 20' Dry container or 12 cans x 850 gms shrink wrapped 1700 units per 20' Dry container....
Totapuri Mango Pulp / Puree Natural [Pune]
Hot Packed in OTS Cans TSS 14-16? Brix Acidity : 0.4-0.6% as citric Acid, pH 3.8-4.2 Without any additives packing:- 6 cans X 3.1 Kg each per carton. 1008 cartons per 20' Dry container or 215 Kg Aseptic Bags in Steel Drums 80 Drums per 20' Container....
Totapuri Mango Pulp / Puree Concentrate [Pune]
TSS 28? Brix Acidity : 0.8-1.0% as citric Acid pH 3.8-4.2 packing:-220 Kg Aseptic Bags in Steel Drums 80 Drums per 20' Container.....
Alphonso Mango Pulp [Mumbai]
Colour:- Bright Yellowish Orange Flavour:- Pleasant Ripe Natural Alphonso Mango Texture:- Typical Soft Consistency:- 11 +/- 1.0 (Bostwick CM/30 sec) Vaccuum:- 6" min Brix :- 17* min pH :- 3.5 - 4.5 Acidity :- 0.5% Min as Citric Acid ....
MANGO PULP [Mumbai]
A limited quantity of Devgad Alphonso Mango Pulp is manufactured by us. It is a exceptional product and available on orders in the beginning of the season. The specifications can be catered to meet various end uses Alphonso Mango Pulp and Totapuri Mango Pulp of South Indian origin is manufactured at HACCP certified units. Indicative specifications of product and packing are attached below. Prod....
Mango Pulp and Guava Pulp [Krishnagiri]
We would like to introduce ourselves as LOYAL FOOD INTERNATIONAL is one of the leading Manufacturer and Exporters of Mango Pulp. We are in the business of Fruit Pulps and Concentrates for the last 7 years. We regularly export large quantities of Fruit Pulps and Concentrates to our valued customers in Europe, Middle East & East Asia countries, etc and they are satisfied with our quality of products....
Mango Pulp and Guava Pulp [Krishnagiri, TN, India]
We would like to introduce ourselves as LOYAL FOOD INTERNATIONAL is one of the leading Manufacturer and Exporters of Mango Pulp. We are in the business of Fruit Pulps and Concentrates for the last 7 years. We regularly export large quantities of Fruit Pulps and Concentrates to our valued customers in Europe, Middle East & East Asia countries, etc and they are satisfied with our quality of products....
Mango Pulp and Guava Pulp [Krishnagiri]
It is our great pleasure to introduce ourselves (Loyal Food International) as one the leading manufacturer and exporters of mango pulp and guava pulp located at Krishnagiri, Tamilnadu, India. Krishnagiri is the world famous for Mango Fruit and for Mango Pulp. Over 40,000 hectares are under mango cultivation, producing 3.5 lacs MT of Mango Fruits every year. Our HACCP certified Aseptic and Canning ....
New Crop Mango Pulp [Krishnagiri]
It is our great pleasure to introduce ourselves (Loyal Food International) as one the leading manufacturer and exporters of mango pulp and guava pulp located at Krishnagiri, Tamilnadu, India. Krishnagiri is the world famous for Mango Fruit and for Mango Pulp. Over 40,000 hectares are under mango cultivation, producing 3.5 lacs MT of Mango Fruits every year. Our HACCP certified Aseptic and Canning ....
Mango Pulp [Chennai]
Commodity : Mango Pulp (100% Natural) ?Totapuri Mango Pulp? Ingredients : Mango Pulp and Citric Acid Certification : HACCP Certified ....
New Crop Mango Pulp and Guava Pulp - loyalfood.com [Bangalore]
We have our range of Mango and Guava Pulp as detailed below: Natural Totapuri and Alphonso Mango Pulp Natural Pink and White Guava Pulp Sweetened Alphonso and Totapuri Mango Pulp Mango Pulp Packing in A10 OTS cans (3.1kg) ....
WE ARE EXPORTER AND MANUFACTURER OF KESAR MANGO, MANGO PULP, PAPAIN, ONION, GARLIC, SESAME SEED ETC [Junagadh]
WE ARE EXPORTER AND MANUFACTURER OF KESAR MANGO, MANGO PULP, PAPAIN, ONION, GARLIC, SESAME SEED ETC....
FRUIT PULP, MANGO PULP, GUAVA PULP [Chennai]
Product Specifications Packing Totapuri Mango Pulp / Puree Natural Hot Packed in OTS Cans TSS 14-16 Deg Brix Acidity : 0.4-0.5 as citric Acid 6 cans X 3.1 Kg each per carton. 1000 cartons or 24 cans x 850 gms each per carton 900 cartons per 20' Dry container White Guava Pulp / Puree Natural Hot Packed in OTS Cans TSS 9-10 Deg Brix Acidity : 0.4-0.45% as citric Acid 6 cans X 3.1 Kg each per ....
New Crop Mango Pulp and Guava Pulp [Krishnagiri]
It is our great pleasure to introduce ourselves Loyal Food International as one the leading manufacturer and exporters of mango pulp and guava pulp located at Krishnagiri, Tamilnadu, India. Krishnagiri is the world famous for Mango Fruit and for Mango Pulp. Over 40,000 hectares are under mango cultivation, producing 3.5 lacs MT of Mango Fruits every year. Our HACCP certified Aseptic and Canning Fa....
Krishnagiri Totapuri Mango Pulp [Krishnagiri]
It is our great pleasure to introduce ourselves Loyal Food International as one the leading manufacturer and exporters of mango pulp and guava pulp located at Krishnagiri, Tamilnadu, India. Krishnagiri is the world famous for Mango Fruit and for Mango Pulp. Over 40,000 hectares are under mango cultivation, producing 3.5 lacs MT of Mango Fruits every year. Our HACCP certified Aseptic and Canning Fa....
Chittoor Mango Pulp [Krishnagiri]
It is our great pleasure to introduce ourselves Loyal Food International as one the leading manufacturer and exporters of mango pulp and guava pulp located at Krishnagiri, Tamilnadu, India. Krishnagiri is the world famous for Mango Fruit and for Mango Pulp. Over 40,000 hectares are under mango cultivation, producing 3.5 lacs MT of Mango Fruits every year. Our HACCP certified Aseptic and Canning Fa....
Mango pulp [Dombivli]
We trade in the best Quality mango pulps such as Alphonso, Kesar, and Totapuri mango pulps procured from best cultivating areas in India respectively. Packing in 3.1 kg tins or 215 kg aseptic drums. ....
Mango Pulp
MANGO [Cairo]
MANGO OFFER
Trade Brand : Egyptian mango fresh fruit
Origin : delta Egypt
Packing :5 kg / carton
Container capacity: 12 tons [10 pallets each pallet 240 carton] 20' FCL
Incoterm : F.O.B
Availability : August -November
Quantity : Depends on contract
Shipping : At season
Loading : Any Egyptian port [by air or by sea]
....
RAW-MANGO CUTTING MACHINE [Pune]
A new model is introduced this year. It is a perfect combination of square cutting [cubbing] without damaging green skin of raw mango. The cutting machine
is indigenously manufactured.
It is A maintenance free simple application unit. In feed conveyor is attached with machine to get the perfect out-put.
Compact in size & easy for working . 85% saving of man power. Long life SS Cutting b....
Spray Dried Mango Powder [Mumbai]
Orange Yellow, Free Flowing Powder; Free from extraneous matter and lumps. Taste & Odour Typical of rich and ripe Mango; free from off-flavour and odours. ....
MANGO CUTTING MACHINE [Kolhapur]
It is designed specially for cutting Mangoes. It is small in size and cuts 100kg. Mangoes in one hour. It''s capacity is 3HP.....
RAW MANGO FINE CUTTING MACHINE [Kolhapur]
Designed and developed specially for the pickles. Manufactures for fine cutting of Raw Mangoes. ....
MANGO PICKLE [Pune]
Ingredients :- Pieces of Mango, Salt, Cotten Seed Oil, Ground Spices, (Chilly, Turmmeric, Mustard) Asafoetida. Price:-Rs.225/- for 5kg. ....
Mango Pickle [New Delhi]
Net Weight : 400 gm. or 14.12 Oz. Ingredients : Mango Pieces, Salt, Edible oil, Mustard, Red Chilli, Fenugreek, Fennel, Kalongi, Mix Spices, Lime Juice and Acetic Acid. ....
PAPAYA !
India: Papaya cultivation faces threat from 'Mealy Bug' pest in Tamil Nadu
Papaya cultivation in Tamil Nadu is faced with a serious threat from a new kind of pest called 'Mealy Bug' which has invaded the crop.
In India, Papaya is cultivated in 8000 hectares of area whereas in Tamil Nadu alone Papaya is cultivated in about 3000 hectares area.
The farmers have suffered losses due to the sudden outbreak of the pest, which has a high resistance to pesticides due to their waxy body surface.
The pest from Mexico spreads fast across fruits and crops. It is small in size and lay around 1500 eggs in one season.
"When we approached the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University for the solution of the problem, they suggested some pesticides which does not prove to be effective. The situation is a fix, as what do we do? We have grown this cultivation on more than 2 acre of land, and 50,000 rupees have been spent per acre. And in spite of that we have suffered huge loses. We are fully dependent only on this and now find it very difficult to even sustain our living," said Krishnaswamy, a worried farmer.
Papaya production has already been affected a lot compared to the previous year's production and export.
"Farmers if see the insects on their crop, they immediately go for an insecticide or for the combination products. If one insecticide works well the first time then they give the repeated application of the insecticide, which is not correct, " said Jonathan, Director, Centre For Plant Production Studies, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University.
Farmers fear that if similar situation continues for long it will destroy the entire Papaya crop affecting the livelihood of farmers.
Papaya cultivation in Tamil Nadu is faced with a serious threat from a new kind of pest called 'Mealy Bug' which has invaded the crop.
In India, Papaya is cultivated in 8000 hectares of area whereas in Tamil Nadu alone Papaya is cultivated in about 3000 hectares area.
The farmers have suffered losses due to the sudden outbreak of the pest, which has a high resistance to pesticides due to their waxy body surface.
The pest from Mexico spreads fast across fruits and crops. It is small in size and lay around 1500 eggs in one season.
"When we approached the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University for the solution of the problem, they suggested some pesticides which does not prove to be effective. The situation is a fix, as what do we do? We have grown this cultivation on more than 2 acre of land, and 50,000 rupees have been spent per acre. And in spite of that we have suffered huge loses. We are fully dependent only on this and now find it very difficult to even sustain our living," said Krishnaswamy, a worried farmer.
Papaya production has already been affected a lot compared to the previous year's production and export.
"Farmers if see the insects on their crop, they immediately go for an insecticide or for the combination products. If one insecticide works well the first time then they give the repeated application of the insecticide, which is not correct, " said Jonathan, Director, Centre For Plant Production Studies, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University.
Farmers fear that if similar situation continues for long it will destroy the entire Papaya crop affecting the livelihood of farmers.
MANGO PRICE?
POOR ARRIVALS PUSH UP MANGO PRICE S.KUMARESAN 9003612277
The price of the mango, the fruit of the common man in summer, has increased to unprecedented levels. The price has certainly more than doubled and in some cases increased by even four times depending on the variety.
The increase is not restricted to one region of the country. In Mumbai, a particular variety of mango which was selling at Rs.70-80 a dozen last year is now quoted at Rs.350-400. In Chennai, the Bangalore variety, a cheap one is selling at about Rs.20 a kilogram, more than double the price of last year. The situation is no different in Delhi too. The price of Safeda, a good quality mango, is over Rs.40 a kilogram.
Poor Arrivals
The abnormal increase in the prices of mangoes is attributed to the poor arrival of the fruit in the market. This year, only four or five truck loads of mangoes are coming to Chennai every day as against 30 to 40 truck loads last year. About 100 to 150 boxes of Alphonso variety are arriving daily this year from Ratnagiri in Maharashtra as against 500 to 600 boxes last year says Shri Elangovan, Secretary of the Chennai Fruit Commission Agents Association at Koyambedu wholesale market. Another vendor Shri Marimuthu said even the Malgova variety from the nearby Salem started arriving late this year.
Sharp fall in Production
Usually, the shortfall in production will be offset by a bumper crop in some other region of the country. This year, the yield of the mango crop suffered uniformly throughout the country. An estimate puts the shortfall at 45 per cent for the whole country. As against the normal production of 110 lakh tonnes a year, the current year's production is estimated at 60 lakh tonnes only. The yield has fallen by about 40 per cent in Andhra Pradesh which accounts for 28 per cent of the total mango production in the country. The output in Karnataka, which accounts for seven per cent of the production, is significantly low. In Tamilnadu, production fell by about 60 per cent in the main mango producing area of Dharmapuri, Krishnagiri and Salem. However, the production of varieties like Bangalore, Kalapad and Neelam has not been affected much.
Causes of Crop Failure
The failure of the mango crop is not restricted to India alone. The South-East Asian countries, like Thailand, Indonesia and Philippines have reported fall in their production this year. Experts believe that environmental degradation such as the forest fire in Indonesia and E1 Nino effect could be the cause for the crop failure in these countries. ' In our country, the unseasonal rains leading to extended winter and consequent low temperature in the North did not allow adequate and timely flowering. Thereafter, the rise in temperature and rains resulting in the increasing humidity levels which led to breeding of insects, proved harmful to the mango crop' according to experts in the field. In the South, continuous rains in the mango growing areas resulted in flowers failing to bloom in the last December and january. The heavy rains also affected the pollination. The absence of the dew in the flowering season also contributed to this phenomenon.
Mango "King of the Fruits"
Mango is the favourite fruit in all parts of the country and has repeatedly been acclaimed as the "king of fruits". In area, production and popularity of the appeal, mango tops the list of fruits. No other country can surpass India in the number of mango varieties and the richness of the flavours. The climate of the country is ideally suited for mango cultivation.
Mango is grown in different parts of the country except at an altitude of above 3,000 feet. Mango cultivation in the country accounts for 42 per cent of the area under fruit cultivation. Uttar Pradesh occupies the pre-eminent position by having the largest area under mango crop followed by Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Karnataka, Tamilnadu and Gujarat.
Mango Varieties
In India, about 1,500 varieties of mango are grown including 1,000 commercial varieties. Each of the top varieties of the mango has a unique taste and flavour, giving the fruit a quality par excellence. The most sought after variety, Alphonso, is mainly cultivated in Ratnagiri in Maharashtra, Bulsar in Gujarat and also in Karanataka. Dashehari, Langra, Bombay Green and Chausa are grown in UP. Another top variety, Himsagar is cultivated in West Bengal. Banganapalli, Neelam, Bangalora and Swarnarekha are abound in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Alphonso, Dashehari and Banganapalli are exported to some countries.
The Dashehari is a fibreless fruit with a delicate taste. It is medium sized roundish oval and greenish. Bombay Green called Maldain UP and Sehroli in Delhi is a very sweet and greenish fruit having a strong flavour. This variety is identical with Bombay Yellow which develops a yellowish colour near the shoulder. Alphonso also called Hafus, Aapus, Badami, Gundu, Khader and Patnam Jathi is one of the best varieties of the country.
Neelam or Kaja Laddu is a ovate oblique and yellow fruit of a fair quality. Ramani a moderately good fruitisapple-shaped and yellow in colour with a red blush on the shoulder.
Another variety Banganpalli, also called Baneshan, Chapta, Chapatai and Safeda in the North is a good large-sized, obliquely oval and yellow fruit. Malgova, a large roundish-oblique yellow fruit is of a good quality. It is very suitable for making preserves and has a good keeping quality. Swarnarekha, a fairly good fruit and a good keeping quality, is a very early variety of coastal Andhra Pradesh. It is exported to the markets in North India. It is also called Chinna Swarnarekha and Sundari or Sandhuri in the Delhi market.
Nutritious
Good mango varieties contain over 20 per cent of the total soluble solids (sugars). The acid content of ripe dessert fruit varies from 0.2 to 0.5 per cent and the protein content is about one per cent. Mango is also considered to have medicinal properties. The ripe fruit is fattening, diuretic and laxative. It helps to increase digestive capacity and the brain power. Mango has a special place in our culture. References to mango tree and the fruit are abound in our epics and literature. Mango was cultivated in India as early as four thousand years ago. Still, it remains a fruit that almost every Indian enjoys.-PIB
The price of the mango, the fruit of the common man in summer, has increased to unprecedented levels. The price has certainly more than doubled and in some cases increased by even four times depending on the variety.
The increase is not restricted to one region of the country. In Mumbai, a particular variety of mango which was selling at Rs.70-80 a dozen last year is now quoted at Rs.350-400. In Chennai, the Bangalore variety, a cheap one is selling at about Rs.20 a kilogram, more than double the price of last year. The situation is no different in Delhi too. The price of Safeda, a good quality mango, is over Rs.40 a kilogram.
Poor Arrivals
The abnormal increase in the prices of mangoes is attributed to the poor arrival of the fruit in the market. This year, only four or five truck loads of mangoes are coming to Chennai every day as against 30 to 40 truck loads last year. About 100 to 150 boxes of Alphonso variety are arriving daily this year from Ratnagiri in Maharashtra as against 500 to 600 boxes last year says Shri Elangovan, Secretary of the Chennai Fruit Commission Agents Association at Koyambedu wholesale market. Another vendor Shri Marimuthu said even the Malgova variety from the nearby Salem started arriving late this year.
Sharp fall in Production
Usually, the shortfall in production will be offset by a bumper crop in some other region of the country. This year, the yield of the mango crop suffered uniformly throughout the country. An estimate puts the shortfall at 45 per cent for the whole country. As against the normal production of 110 lakh tonnes a year, the current year's production is estimated at 60 lakh tonnes only. The yield has fallen by about 40 per cent in Andhra Pradesh which accounts for 28 per cent of the total mango production in the country. The output in Karnataka, which accounts for seven per cent of the production, is significantly low. In Tamilnadu, production fell by about 60 per cent in the main mango producing area of Dharmapuri, Krishnagiri and Salem. However, the production of varieties like Bangalore, Kalapad and Neelam has not been affected much.
Causes of Crop Failure
The failure of the mango crop is not restricted to India alone. The South-East Asian countries, like Thailand, Indonesia and Philippines have reported fall in their production this year. Experts believe that environmental degradation such as the forest fire in Indonesia and E1 Nino effect could be the cause for the crop failure in these countries. ' In our country, the unseasonal rains leading to extended winter and consequent low temperature in the North did not allow adequate and timely flowering. Thereafter, the rise in temperature and rains resulting in the increasing humidity levels which led to breeding of insects, proved harmful to the mango crop' according to experts in the field. In the South, continuous rains in the mango growing areas resulted in flowers failing to bloom in the last December and january. The heavy rains also affected the pollination. The absence of the dew in the flowering season also contributed to this phenomenon.
Mango "King of the Fruits"
Mango is the favourite fruit in all parts of the country and has repeatedly been acclaimed as the "king of fruits". In area, production and popularity of the appeal, mango tops the list of fruits. No other country can surpass India in the number of mango varieties and the richness of the flavours. The climate of the country is ideally suited for mango cultivation.
Mango is grown in different parts of the country except at an altitude of above 3,000 feet. Mango cultivation in the country accounts for 42 per cent of the area under fruit cultivation. Uttar Pradesh occupies the pre-eminent position by having the largest area under mango crop followed by Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Karnataka, Tamilnadu and Gujarat.
Mango Varieties
In India, about 1,500 varieties of mango are grown including 1,000 commercial varieties. Each of the top varieties of the mango has a unique taste and flavour, giving the fruit a quality par excellence. The most sought after variety, Alphonso, is mainly cultivated in Ratnagiri in Maharashtra, Bulsar in Gujarat and also in Karanataka. Dashehari, Langra, Bombay Green and Chausa are grown in UP. Another top variety, Himsagar is cultivated in West Bengal. Banganapalli, Neelam, Bangalora and Swarnarekha are abound in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Alphonso, Dashehari and Banganapalli are exported to some countries.
The Dashehari is a fibreless fruit with a delicate taste. It is medium sized roundish oval and greenish. Bombay Green called Maldain UP and Sehroli in Delhi is a very sweet and greenish fruit having a strong flavour. This variety is identical with Bombay Yellow which develops a yellowish colour near the shoulder. Alphonso also called Hafus, Aapus, Badami, Gundu, Khader and Patnam Jathi is one of the best varieties of the country.
Neelam or Kaja Laddu is a ovate oblique and yellow fruit of a fair quality. Ramani a moderately good fruitisapple-shaped and yellow in colour with a red blush on the shoulder.
Another variety Banganpalli, also called Baneshan, Chapta, Chapatai and Safeda in the North is a good large-sized, obliquely oval and yellow fruit. Malgova, a large roundish-oblique yellow fruit is of a good quality. It is very suitable for making preserves and has a good keeping quality. Swarnarekha, a fairly good fruit and a good keeping quality, is a very early variety of coastal Andhra Pradesh. It is exported to the markets in North India. It is also called Chinna Swarnarekha and Sundari or Sandhuri in the Delhi market.
Nutritious
Good mango varieties contain over 20 per cent of the total soluble solids (sugars). The acid content of ripe dessert fruit varies from 0.2 to 0.5 per cent and the protein content is about one per cent. Mango is also considered to have medicinal properties. The ripe fruit is fattening, diuretic and laxative. It helps to increase digestive capacity and the brain power. Mango has a special place in our culture. References to mango tree and the fruit are abound in our epics and literature. Mango was cultivated in India as early as four thousand years ago. Still, it remains a fruit that almost every Indian enjoys.-PIB
MANGO DISEASE 11
MANGOES IN INDIA
This site is developed for all who are interested in mangoes. For further questions/ information you can send comments or mail to
sskumar2129@gmail.com
VARIETIES: Characteristics of important Indian varieties, Hybrid Varieties
PORPAGATION : Inarching, Veneer grafting, Budding, Stone Epicotyl grafting, Soft-wood grafting, Air layering
PLANTING: Time of planting, Planting distance, Size of pits, Filling of pits, Planting of grafts, Training and pruning
FERTILIZERS: Quantity of fertilizer, Time of fertilizer application, Method of fertilizer application
IRRIGATION, INTERCULTURE, INTERCROPPING
REJUVENATION OF MANGO ORCHARD
DISEASES: Powdery mildew, Anthracnose, Die back , Phoma blight , Bacterial canker, Red rust , Sooty mould Postharvest Diseases
PESTS: Hopper, Mealy bug , Inflorescence midge, Fruitfly, Scale insects, Shoot borer, Bark-eating caterpillar, Stem borer, Shoot gall psylla, Leaf webber, Stone weevil
DISORDERS: Mango malformation, Biennial bearing, Fruit drop, Black tip, Clustering disorder in mango (‘Jhumka’)
MATURITY, HARVESTING, PACKAGINGSTORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION,
PROCESSING:Raw mango products Pickle, Amchoor, Slices, Green mango beverage:
Ripe mango products: Pulp, Beverages (Juice and Nectar), Squash, Slices, Mango Leather or Aam Papad
WASTE UTILIZATION
Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is the most important fruit of India. It is grown over an area of 1.23 million hectares in the country producing 10.99 million tonnes. It accounts for 22.1 per cent of total area (5.57 million ha) and 22.9 per cent of total production of fruits (47.94 million tonnes) in the country. Though Uttar Pradesh has the largest area of 0.27 million hectares under mango, Andhra Pradesh has the highest productivity of 12 tonnes per hectare. While Andhra Pradesh produces 3.07 million tonnes of mango, U.P., Bihar and Karnataka produce 2.39, 1.79 and 0.92 million tonnes, respectively. India ranks first among world’s mango producing countries accounting for 52.63 per cent of the total world’s mango production of 19 million tonnes.
CLIMATE
Mango is very well adapted to tropical and subtropical climates. It thrives well in almost all the regions of the country from sea level to an altitude of 1500 m, i.e., from Cape Comerin to Himalayas. However, it cannot be grown commercially in areas above 600 m. Temperature, rainfall, wind velocity and altitude are the main climatic factors which influence its growth and fruiting. It cannot stand severe frost, especially when the tree is young. High temperature by itself is not so injurious to mango, but in combination with low humidity and high winds, affects the trees adversely.
Most of the mango varieties thrive in places with good rainfall (75 to 375 cm per annum) and dry season. The distribution of rainfall is more important than its amount. Dry weather before blossoming is conducive to profuse flowering. Rain during flowering is detrimental to the crop as it interferes with pollination. However, rain during fruit development is good but heavy rains cause damage to ripening fruits. Strong winds and cyclones during the fruiting season can play havoc as they cause excessive fruit drop.
SOIL
Mango grows well on wide variety of soils, such as lateritic, alluvial, sandy loam and sandy. Although it grows very well in high to medium fertility soils, its cultivation can be made successful even in low fertility soils by appropriate management especially during early stages of growth. Very poor and stony soils on hill slopes should, however, be avoided. The loamy, alluvial, well drained, aerated and deep soils rich in organic matter with a pH range of 5.5 to 7.5 are most for mango cultivation. The extremely sandy, shallow, rocky, water-logged, heavy textured and alkaline or calcareous soils are not suitable for mango cultivation.
VARIETIES
There are more than thousand mango varieties in India. However, only about 30 varieties are grown on commercial scale in different states.Important mango varieties cultivated in different states of India
States
Varieties
Andhra Pradesh Banganpalli, Bangalora,Cherukurasam, Himayuddin, Suvarnarekha
Bihar Bombai, Langra, Fazri, Himsagar, Kishen Bhog, Sukul, Bathua
Goa Fernandin, Mankurad, Alphonso
Gujarat Alphonso, Kesar, Rajapuri, Vanraj
Haryana Dashehari, Langra, Bombay Green
Karnataka Alphonso, Bangalora, Mulgoa, Neelum, Pairi
Kerala Mundappa, Olour, Pairi
Madhya Pradesh Alphonso, Bombai, Langra and mostly seedling types
Maharashtra Alphonso, Kesar, Mankurad, Mulgoa, Pairi
Orissa Baneshan, Langra, Neelum, Suvarnarekha and mostly seedling types
Punjab Dashehari, Langra, Chausa
Tamil Nadu Banganpalli, Bangalora, Neelum, Rumani, Mulgoa
Uttar Pradesh Bombay Green, Dashehari, Fajri, Langra, Safeda Lucknow, Chausa
West Bengal Bombai, Himsagar, Kishan Bhog, Langra
Characteristics of important Indian varieties
1. Alphonso : This is the leading commercial variety of Maharashtra state and one of the choicest varieties of the country. This variety is known by different names in different regions, viz. Badami, Gundu, Khader, Appas, Happus and Kagdi Happus. The fruit of this variety is medium in size, ovate oblique in shape and orange yellow in colour. The fruit quality is excellent and keeping quality is good. It has been found good for canning purpose. It is a mid season variety
2. Bangalora : It is a commercial variety of south India. The fruit size is medium to large, its shape is oblong with necked base and colour is golden yellow. Fruit quality is poor. Keeping quality is very good. It is widely used for processing. It is a mid season variety.
3. Banganpalli: It is a commercial variety of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu and also known as Chapta, Safeda, Baneshan and Chaptai. Fruit is large in size and obliquely oval in shape. The colour of the fruit is golden yellow. Fruit quality and keeping quality are good. It is a mid season variety and is good for canning.
4. Bombai : It is a commercial variety from Bihar state. It is also known as Malda in West Bengal and Bihar. Fruit size is medium, shape ovate-oblique and colour yellow. Fruit quality and keeping quality are medium. It is an early season variety.
5. Bombay Green : It is commonly grown in north India due to its early ripening habit. It is also called Malda in Northern India. Fruit size is medium, shape ovate oblong and fruit colour is spinach green. Fruit quality is good and keeping quality is medium. It is a very early variety.
6. Dashehari : This variety derives its name from the village Dashehari near Lucknow. It is a leading commercial variety of north India and one of the best varieties of our country. The fruit size is medium, shape is oblong to oblong oblique and fruit colour is yellow. Fruit quality is excellent keeping quality is good. It is a mid season variety and is mainly used for table purpose.
7. Fajri : This variety is commonly grown in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal. Fruit is very large, obliquely oval in shape. Fruit colour is light chrome. Fruit quality and keeping quality are medium. This is a late season variety.
8. Fernnadin : This is one of the oldest varieties of Bombay. Some people think that this variety originated in Goa. Fruit size is medium to large, fruit shape is oval to obliquely oval and fruit colour is yellow with a red blush on shoulders. Fruit quality and keeping quality are medium. It is a late season variety mostly used for table purpose.
9. Himsagar : This variety is indigenous to Bengal. This is one of the choicest varieties of Bengal and has gained extensive popularity. Fruit is of medium size, ovate to ovate oblique. Fruit colour is yellow. Both fruit and keeping quality are good. It is an early variety.
10. Kesar : This is a leading variety of Gujarat with a red blush on the shoulders. Fruit size is medium, shape oblong and keeping quality is good. It is an early variety.
11. Kishen Bhog : This variety is indigenous to Murshidabad in West Bengal. Fruit size is medium, fruit shape is roundish oblique and fruit colour is yellow. Fruit quality and keeping quality are good. It is a mid season variety.
12. Langra : This variety is indigenous to Varanasi area of Uttar Pradesh. It is extensively grown in northern India. Fruit is of medium size, ovate shape and lettuce green colour. Fruit quality is good. Keeping quality is medium. It is a mid season variety.
13. Mankurad : This variety is of commercial importance in Goa and in the neighbouring Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra. The variety develops black spots on the skin in rainy season. Fruit is medium in size, ovate in shape and yellow in colour. Fruit quality is very good. Keeping quality is poor. It is a mid season variety.
14. Mulgoa : This is a commercial variety of southern India. It is quite popular among the lovers of mango owing to high quality of its fruit. Fruit is large in size, roundish oblique in shape and yellow in colour. Fruit quality is very good. Keeping quality is good. It is a late season variety.
15. Neelum : This is a commercial variety indigenous to Tamil Nadu. It is an ideal variety for transporting to distant places owing to its high keeping quality. Fruit is medium in size, ovate oblique in shape and saffron yellow in colour. Fruit quality is good and keeping quality is very good. It is a late season variety.
16. Chausa : This variety originated as a chance seedling in the orchard of a Talukadar of Sandila district Hardoi, U.P. It is commonly grown in northern parts of India due to its characteristic flavour and taste. Fruit is large in size, ovate to oval oblique in shape and light yellow in colour. Fruit quality is good keeping quality is medium. it is a late variety.
17. Suvarnarekha : This is a commercial variety of Visakhapatnam district of Andhra Pradesh. Other synonyms of this variety are Sundari, Lal Sundari. Fruit is medium in size and ovate oblong in shape. Colour of the fruit is light cadmium with a blush of jasper red. Fruit quality is medium and keeping quality is good. It is an early variety.
18. Vanraj : It is a highly prized variety of Vadodra district of Gujarat and fetches good returns. Fruit is medium in size, ovate oblong in shape and colour is deep chrome with a blush of jasper red on the shoulders. Fruit quality and keeing quality good. It is a mid season variety.
19. Zardalu : This variety is indigenous to Murshidabad in West Bengal. Fruit size is medium, oblong to obliquely oblong and golden yellow in colour. Fruit quality is very good. Keeping quality is medium. It is a mid season variety.
Hybrid Varieties
i) Amarapali : This hybrid is from a cross of Dashehari x Neelum. It is dwarf, regular bearing and late maturing variety. The variety is suitable for high density planting as about 1600 plants may be planted in a hectare. It yields on an average 16 tonnes / hectare.
ii) Mallika : It is from a cross of Neelum x Dashehari. Its fruit is large in size, oblong elliptical and in shape cadmium yellow in colour. Fruit and keeping quality are good. It is a mid season variety.
iii) Arka Aruna : It is a hybrid between Baganpalli and Alphonso. It is dwarf regular bearing, precocious. Fruits are large having attractive skin colour with red blush free from spongy tissue.
iv) Arka Puneet : It is a hybrid between Alphonso and Banganpalli. It regular and prolific bearer. Fruits are medium sized having attractive skin colour with red blush and free from spongy tissue. Excellent keeping quality.
v) Arka Anmol : This hybrid is from a cron of Alphonso and Janardhan Pasand. It is regular bearer and good yielder. Fruits are medium sized having uniform yellow peel colour, excellent keeping quality and free from spongy tissue.
vi) Arka Neelkiran : It is a hybrid between Alphonso and Neelum. It is , regular bearering late season variety with medium sized fruits having attractive red blush free from spongy tissue.
vii) Ratna : This hybrid is from a cross of Neelum x Alphonso. Tree vigorous, precautions, fruits are medium sized, attractive in colour and free from spongy tissue.
viii) Sindhu : It is from a cross of Ratna x Alphonso. It is regular bearer, fruits medium sized, free from spongy tissue with high pulp to stone ratio and very thin and small stone.
ix) Au Rumani : It is from a cross of Rumani x Mulgoa. It is precocious, heavy and regular bearing with large fruits having yellow cadmium skin colour.
x) Manjeera : This hybrid is from a cross of Rumani x Neelum. It is dwarf, regular and prolific bearer with firm and fibre less flesh.
Other hybrid varieties released are Alfazali, Sundar Langra, Sabri, Jawahar, Neelphonso, Neeleshan, Neeleshwari and PKM2.
This site is developed for all who are interested in mangoes. For further questions/ information you can send comments or mail to
sskumar2129@gmail.com
VARIETIES: Characteristics of important Indian varieties, Hybrid Varieties
PORPAGATION : Inarching, Veneer grafting, Budding, Stone Epicotyl grafting, Soft-wood grafting, Air layering
PLANTING: Time of planting, Planting distance, Size of pits, Filling of pits, Planting of grafts, Training and pruning
FERTILIZERS: Quantity of fertilizer, Time of fertilizer application, Method of fertilizer application
IRRIGATION, INTERCULTURE, INTERCROPPING
REJUVENATION OF MANGO ORCHARD
DISEASES: Powdery mildew, Anthracnose, Die back , Phoma blight , Bacterial canker, Red rust , Sooty mould Postharvest Diseases
PESTS: Hopper, Mealy bug , Inflorescence midge, Fruitfly, Scale insects, Shoot borer, Bark-eating caterpillar, Stem borer, Shoot gall psylla, Leaf webber, Stone weevil
DISORDERS: Mango malformation, Biennial bearing, Fruit drop, Black tip, Clustering disorder in mango (‘Jhumka’)
MATURITY, HARVESTING, PACKAGINGSTORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION,
PROCESSING:Raw mango products Pickle, Amchoor, Slices, Green mango beverage:
Ripe mango products: Pulp, Beverages (Juice and Nectar), Squash, Slices, Mango Leather or Aam Papad
WASTE UTILIZATION
Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is the most important fruit of India. It is grown over an area of 1.23 million hectares in the country producing 10.99 million tonnes. It accounts for 22.1 per cent of total area (5.57 million ha) and 22.9 per cent of total production of fruits (47.94 million tonnes) in the country. Though Uttar Pradesh has the largest area of 0.27 million hectares under mango, Andhra Pradesh has the highest productivity of 12 tonnes per hectare. While Andhra Pradesh produces 3.07 million tonnes of mango, U.P., Bihar and Karnataka produce 2.39, 1.79 and 0.92 million tonnes, respectively. India ranks first among world’s mango producing countries accounting for 52.63 per cent of the total world’s mango production of 19 million tonnes.
CLIMATE
Mango is very well adapted to tropical and subtropical climates. It thrives well in almost all the regions of the country from sea level to an altitude of 1500 m, i.e., from Cape Comerin to Himalayas. However, it cannot be grown commercially in areas above 600 m. Temperature, rainfall, wind velocity and altitude are the main climatic factors which influence its growth and fruiting. It cannot stand severe frost, especially when the tree is young. High temperature by itself is not so injurious to mango, but in combination with low humidity and high winds, affects the trees adversely.
Most of the mango varieties thrive in places with good rainfall (75 to 375 cm per annum) and dry season. The distribution of rainfall is more important than its amount. Dry weather before blossoming is conducive to profuse flowering. Rain during flowering is detrimental to the crop as it interferes with pollination. However, rain during fruit development is good but heavy rains cause damage to ripening fruits. Strong winds and cyclones during the fruiting season can play havoc as they cause excessive fruit drop.
SOIL
Mango grows well on wide variety of soils, such as lateritic, alluvial, sandy loam and sandy. Although it grows very well in high to medium fertility soils, its cultivation can be made successful even in low fertility soils by appropriate management especially during early stages of growth. Very poor and stony soils on hill slopes should, however, be avoided. The loamy, alluvial, well drained, aerated and deep soils rich in organic matter with a pH range of 5.5 to 7.5 are most for mango cultivation. The extremely sandy, shallow, rocky, water-logged, heavy textured and alkaline or calcareous soils are not suitable for mango cultivation.
VARIETIES
There are more than thousand mango varieties in India. However, only about 30 varieties are grown on commercial scale in different states.Important mango varieties cultivated in different states of India
States
Varieties
Andhra Pradesh Banganpalli, Bangalora,Cherukurasam, Himayuddin, Suvarnarekha
Bihar Bombai, Langra, Fazri, Himsagar, Kishen Bhog, Sukul, Bathua
Goa Fernandin, Mankurad, Alphonso
Gujarat Alphonso, Kesar, Rajapuri, Vanraj
Haryana Dashehari, Langra, Bombay Green
Karnataka Alphonso, Bangalora, Mulgoa, Neelum, Pairi
Kerala Mundappa, Olour, Pairi
Madhya Pradesh Alphonso, Bombai, Langra and mostly seedling types
Maharashtra Alphonso, Kesar, Mankurad, Mulgoa, Pairi
Orissa Baneshan, Langra, Neelum, Suvarnarekha and mostly seedling types
Punjab Dashehari, Langra, Chausa
Tamil Nadu Banganpalli, Bangalora, Neelum, Rumani, Mulgoa
Uttar Pradesh Bombay Green, Dashehari, Fajri, Langra, Safeda Lucknow, Chausa
West Bengal Bombai, Himsagar, Kishan Bhog, Langra
Characteristics of important Indian varieties
1. Alphonso : This is the leading commercial variety of Maharashtra state and one of the choicest varieties of the country. This variety is known by different names in different regions, viz. Badami, Gundu, Khader, Appas, Happus and Kagdi Happus. The fruit of this variety is medium in size, ovate oblique in shape and orange yellow in colour. The fruit quality is excellent and keeping quality is good. It has been found good for canning purpose. It is a mid season variety
2. Bangalora : It is a commercial variety of south India. The fruit size is medium to large, its shape is oblong with necked base and colour is golden yellow. Fruit quality is poor. Keeping quality is very good. It is widely used for processing. It is a mid season variety.
3. Banganpalli: It is a commercial variety of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu and also known as Chapta, Safeda, Baneshan and Chaptai. Fruit is large in size and obliquely oval in shape. The colour of the fruit is golden yellow. Fruit quality and keeping quality are good. It is a mid season variety and is good for canning.
4. Bombai : It is a commercial variety from Bihar state. It is also known as Malda in West Bengal and Bihar. Fruit size is medium, shape ovate-oblique and colour yellow. Fruit quality and keeping quality are medium. It is an early season variety.
5. Bombay Green : It is commonly grown in north India due to its early ripening habit. It is also called Malda in Northern India. Fruit size is medium, shape ovate oblong and fruit colour is spinach green. Fruit quality is good and keeping quality is medium. It is a very early variety.
6. Dashehari : This variety derives its name from the village Dashehari near Lucknow. It is a leading commercial variety of north India and one of the best varieties of our country. The fruit size is medium, shape is oblong to oblong oblique and fruit colour is yellow. Fruit quality is excellent keeping quality is good. It is a mid season variety and is mainly used for table purpose.
7. Fajri : This variety is commonly grown in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal. Fruit is very large, obliquely oval in shape. Fruit colour is light chrome. Fruit quality and keeping quality are medium. This is a late season variety.
8. Fernnadin : This is one of the oldest varieties of Bombay. Some people think that this variety originated in Goa. Fruit size is medium to large, fruit shape is oval to obliquely oval and fruit colour is yellow with a red blush on shoulders. Fruit quality and keeping quality are medium. It is a late season variety mostly used for table purpose.
9. Himsagar : This variety is indigenous to Bengal. This is one of the choicest varieties of Bengal and has gained extensive popularity. Fruit is of medium size, ovate to ovate oblique. Fruit colour is yellow. Both fruit and keeping quality are good. It is an early variety.
10. Kesar : This is a leading variety of Gujarat with a red blush on the shoulders. Fruit size is medium, shape oblong and keeping quality is good. It is an early variety.
11. Kishen Bhog : This variety is indigenous to Murshidabad in West Bengal. Fruit size is medium, fruit shape is roundish oblique and fruit colour is yellow. Fruit quality and keeping quality are good. It is a mid season variety.
12. Langra : This variety is indigenous to Varanasi area of Uttar Pradesh. It is extensively grown in northern India. Fruit is of medium size, ovate shape and lettuce green colour. Fruit quality is good. Keeping quality is medium. It is a mid season variety.
13. Mankurad : This variety is of commercial importance in Goa and in the neighbouring Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra. The variety develops black spots on the skin in rainy season. Fruit is medium in size, ovate in shape and yellow in colour. Fruit quality is very good. Keeping quality is poor. It is a mid season variety.
14. Mulgoa : This is a commercial variety of southern India. It is quite popular among the lovers of mango owing to high quality of its fruit. Fruit is large in size, roundish oblique in shape and yellow in colour. Fruit quality is very good. Keeping quality is good. It is a late season variety.
15. Neelum : This is a commercial variety indigenous to Tamil Nadu. It is an ideal variety for transporting to distant places owing to its high keeping quality. Fruit is medium in size, ovate oblique in shape and saffron yellow in colour. Fruit quality is good and keeping quality is very good. It is a late season variety.
16. Chausa : This variety originated as a chance seedling in the orchard of a Talukadar of Sandila district Hardoi, U.P. It is commonly grown in northern parts of India due to its characteristic flavour and taste. Fruit is large in size, ovate to oval oblique in shape and light yellow in colour. Fruit quality is good keeping quality is medium. it is a late variety.
17. Suvarnarekha : This is a commercial variety of Visakhapatnam district of Andhra Pradesh. Other synonyms of this variety are Sundari, Lal Sundari. Fruit is medium in size and ovate oblong in shape. Colour of the fruit is light cadmium with a blush of jasper red. Fruit quality is medium and keeping quality is good. It is an early variety.
18. Vanraj : It is a highly prized variety of Vadodra district of Gujarat and fetches good returns. Fruit is medium in size, ovate oblong in shape and colour is deep chrome with a blush of jasper red on the shoulders. Fruit quality and keeing quality good. It is a mid season variety.
19. Zardalu : This variety is indigenous to Murshidabad in West Bengal. Fruit size is medium, oblong to obliquely oblong and golden yellow in colour. Fruit quality is very good. Keeping quality is medium. It is a mid season variety.
Hybrid Varieties
i) Amarapali : This hybrid is from a cross of Dashehari x Neelum. It is dwarf, regular bearing and late maturing variety. The variety is suitable for high density planting as about 1600 plants may be planted in a hectare. It yields on an average 16 tonnes / hectare.
ii) Mallika : It is from a cross of Neelum x Dashehari. Its fruit is large in size, oblong elliptical and in shape cadmium yellow in colour. Fruit and keeping quality are good. It is a mid season variety.
iii) Arka Aruna : It is a hybrid between Baganpalli and Alphonso. It is dwarf regular bearing, precocious. Fruits are large having attractive skin colour with red blush free from spongy tissue.
iv) Arka Puneet : It is a hybrid between Alphonso and Banganpalli. It regular and prolific bearer. Fruits are medium sized having attractive skin colour with red blush and free from spongy tissue. Excellent keeping quality.
v) Arka Anmol : This hybrid is from a cron of Alphonso and Janardhan Pasand. It is regular bearer and good yielder. Fruits are medium sized having uniform yellow peel colour, excellent keeping quality and free from spongy tissue.
vi) Arka Neelkiran : It is a hybrid between Alphonso and Neelum. It is , regular bearering late season variety with medium sized fruits having attractive red blush free from spongy tissue.
vii) Ratna : This hybrid is from a cross of Neelum x Alphonso. Tree vigorous, precautions, fruits are medium sized, attractive in colour and free from spongy tissue.
viii) Sindhu : It is from a cross of Ratna x Alphonso. It is regular bearer, fruits medium sized, free from spongy tissue with high pulp to stone ratio and very thin and small stone.
ix) Au Rumani : It is from a cross of Rumani x Mulgoa. It is precocious, heavy and regular bearing with large fruits having yellow cadmium skin colour.
x) Manjeera : This hybrid is from a cross of Rumani x Neelum. It is dwarf, regular and prolific bearer with firm and fibre less flesh.
Other hybrid varieties released are Alfazali, Sundar Langra, Sabri, Jawahar, Neelphonso, Neeleshan, Neeleshwari and PKM2.
BANANA CULTIVATION
Agricultural operations for the month . . .
PLANTING. . .
Preparation of land:
Plough the land thoroughly atleast for 3-4 times and add about 10 tonnes of well rotten FYM or Compost during last plough and mix it well or add 10-15 kg FYM/ Compost per pit of 60x60x60 cm dimension.
Selection of Suckers:
Select ‘Sword Suckers’ with broad corm with narrow sword like leaves, from viral, fungal and bacterial disease free mother plants.
The suckers should be 3-5 months old, uniform in size, weighing 1-1.5 kg for Nendran, Rasthali, Ney Poovan and Poovan banana varieties.
For long duration varieties like Karpuravalli and Red Banana, slightly big suckers weighing 1.5-2.0 kg should be used.
For planting of ‘Tissue Culture’ plants, the secondary hardened plant should be about 30 cm tall, 5 cm girth with atleast five fully opened healthy leaves and true to type.
Sucker Treatment and planting:
The selected suckers should be ‘pared’ by trimming of all the roots along with surface layers superficially to remove any rotten portion of the corm.
Dip the pared suckers in 0.2% Carbendazim (2g/litre of water) solution for about 15 –20 minutes as a prophylactic measure against Fusarium wilt disease.
Keep the treated suckers in shade overnight before planting. Plant the suckers in the center of the pit and press the soil around the suckers firmly.
Apply 40 g of Carbofuron granules per pit to protect the plants against nematode attack and irrigate the field thoroughly.
In case of tissue culture plants, one week before planting apply 10 g Carbofuron and 1.0 % bleaching powder or 0.2 % Emissan in 100 ml water as drench into the polythene bags to protect against nematode infestation and bacterial rot (Erwinia Rot) disease respectively.
CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS . . .
During First month
The soil around the plants should be pressed firmly for better and quick establishment of the plants.
Wherever necessary, ‘Gap Filling’ should be done to replace the un- sprouted as well as rotten suckers. Seeds of green manure crops viz., cowpea or sunnhemp be sown.
For additional income and also for effective land use efficiency, short duration crops such as onion, green gram, black gram, beans, radish, greens, marigold and short duration vegetables can be grown as intercrop.
Tomato, chilly and cucurbits should not be grown as intercrop since these crops harbour nematodes and aphids, which act as vector of virus spread.
Second Month
Green manures viz., cowpea or sunnhemp should be ploughed back in to the soil at flowering stage or about 40 days after sowing.
Slight digging and earthing up to keep the weeds under control.
For Fusarium wilt susceptible varieties like Rasthali, Karpuravalli, Ney Poovan, Monthan and Pachanadan, drench the soil around the plant with 0.2% Carbendazim as a prophylactic measure, or
Apply 30g Trichoderma viride or Pseudomonas flourescense along with FYM/compost 1 kg in the soil around the plant as a prophylactic measure for the control of wilt disease.
Third Month
Application of 40g of Carbofuron to control nematodes.
Digging and weeding.
Application of first dose of fertilizers @ 100:300:100 g Urea, Super Phosphate and MOP per plant in basins made about 30 cm away from the plant.
Fourth Month
Application of Azospirillum and phosphobacteria @ 30 g and Trichoderma viride @ 30g along with 5-10 kg FYM plant-1.
There should a gap of minimum 2-3 weeks between the application of chemical fertilizers and biofertilizers.
Periodical removal of side suckers by cutting them above the ground level and pouring 2 ml kerosene at the central core of the sucker.
If any virus affected plants are noticed in the field, remove and destroy it immediately and spray with any systemic insecticide to kill the insect vectors which spread the virus.
Fifth Month
Application of second dose of fertilizers @ 150:150 g Urea and MOP+ 300g neemcake per plant in the basins made about 45 cm away from the plant.
Removal of dried leaves.
Digging and weeding.
To cater the micronutrient need of the plant and to correct their deficiency, apply 50g agricultural lime and 25g magnesium sulphate per plant.
For Fusarium wilt susceptible varieties like Rasthali, Karpuravalli, Ney Poovan, Monthan and Pachanadan drench the soil around the plant with 0.2% Carbendazim as a prophylactic measure.
To prevent the egg laying and further attack of stem weevil, spray ‘Neemosol’ @12.5ml/litre or Chlorpyriphos @ 2.5ml/litre on the stem especially in Nendran, Red banana, Karpuravalli and Monthan varieties.
To monitor the corm and stem weevil, 2 ft long longitudinal stem trap @40 traps/acre can be placed at different places. The collected weevils are to be killed using kerosene.
Keep the banana fields as well as surrounding areas weed free and spray systemic insecticides to control the insect vectors.
Sixth Month
Digging and earthing up of soil around the plant.
Removal of the dried and diseased leaves and spraying of 0.1% Propiconazol (TILT) by thoroughly covering both the surfaces adding wetting agent with the spray fluid especially during winter and cool months for control of Sigatoka leaf spot diseases.
Yellowing of leaves which is a symptom of iron deficiency, spray 0.5% ferrous sulphate + 1.0% urea added with wetting agent on the leaves especially in high pH >8.5 and Calcareous soils.
To correct the deficiency of zinc, spray 0.5% zinc sulphate solution along with wetting agent.
Foliar application of 0.5 Borax is recommended to correct the deficiency.
Apply 30g Trichoderma viride or Pseudomonas flourescense in the soil around the plant as a prophylactic measure to control the wilt disease.
For controlling the stem weevil attack, using ‘Banana Injector’, inject 2ml of Monocrotophos (150 ml Monocrotophos mixed in 350 ml of water) at 2 and 4 feet height on opposite direction.
Seventh Month
Application of third dose of fertilizers @ 150:150 g Urea and MOP per plant in the basins made about 60 cm away from the plant.
Removal of the dried and diseased leaves and spraying of 0.1% Carbendazim or Calixin by thoroughly covering both the surfaces along with wetting agent.
Periodical removal of side suckers by cutting them above the ground level, scoop the core and pour 2 ml kerosene in the core.
Injection of 2ml of Monocrotophos using ‘Banana Injector’ at 2 and 4 feet height for the control of stem weevil.
Eighth Month
After flowering, only one healthy side sucker should be allowed for first ratoon and the remaining suckers should be killed using kerosene or uprooted.
Spraying of 0.1% Indofil by thoroughly covering both the surfaces.
After the emergence of the last hand, the male bud has to be removed leaving about 15 cm stalk from the last hand.
To prevent ‘cigar end rot’ disease, remove the pistil and perianth carefully from the fully emerged fingers and spray the bunch with Indofil M-45 @ 2.5 ml/litre.
Spray 2% Potassium Sulphate (20g/litre of water) solution with surfactant by thoroughly drenching the bunch and cover the bunch with 100 gauge thick white or blue polythene sleeves having 6% ventilation.
Ninth Month:
Thirty days after the first spray, give a second spray of 2% Potassium Sulphate (20g/litre of water) solution with surfactant by thoroughly drenching the bunch.
Provide casuarina pole or bamboo support to the plants for tall and heavy bearing bunches.
Plant population under different planting systems
S.No
Method of Planting
Spacing (m)
Plant Population/ ha
1
CONVENTIONAL PLANTING
i)
Dwarf Cavendish
1.5x1.5
4440
ii)
Robusta and Nendran
1.8x1.8
3080
iii)
Rasthali, Poovan, Karpuravalli, Monthan
2.1x2.1
2260
2.
HIGH DENSITY PLANTING
a)
Paired row planting system
i) Dwarf Cavendish
ii) Robusta, Grand Naine, Poovan,
Rasthali and Ney Poovan
1.2x1.2x2.0
1.5x1.5x2.0
5200
3800
b)
3 suckers/hill (Robusta, Nendran)
1.8x3.6
4500
Drip Water requirement at different growth stages of banana
Sl.
Crop growth stage
Duration (weeks)
Quantity of Water
(litre/plant)
1.
After planting / Ratoon
1-4
Flood irrigation
2.
Juvenile phase
5-9
8-10
3.
Critical growth stage
10-19
12
4.
Flower bud differentiation stage
20-32
16-20
5.
Shooting stage
33-37
20 and above*
6.
Bunch development stage
38-50
20 and above8
* Depending on the season
Weekly Fertigation Schedule for banana (g/ plant / application)
Weeks after Planting
Urea
Total (g/plant)
MOP
Total (g/plant)
9 to 18 week
(10 weeks)
15
150
8.0
80
19 to 30 week
(12 weeks)
10
120
10
120
31 to 40 week
(10 weeks)
7.0
70
12
120
41 to 46 week
(5 weeks)
Nil
Nil
10
50
Total
----
340
----
375
Weekly Fertigation Schedule for banana (g/ plant / application)
Weeks after Planting
Urea
Total (g/plant)
MOP
Total (g/plant)
9 to 18 week
(10 weeks)
15
150
8.0
80
19 to 30 week
(12 weeks)
10
120
10
120
31 to 40 week
(10 weeks)
7.0
70
12
120
41 to 46 week
(5 weeks)
Nil
Nil
10
50
Total
----
340
----
375
PLANTING. . .
Preparation of land:
Plough the land thoroughly atleast for 3-4 times and add about 10 tonnes of well rotten FYM or Compost during last plough and mix it well or add 10-15 kg FYM/ Compost per pit of 60x60x60 cm dimension.
Selection of Suckers:
Select ‘Sword Suckers’ with broad corm with narrow sword like leaves, from viral, fungal and bacterial disease free mother plants.
The suckers should be 3-5 months old, uniform in size, weighing 1-1.5 kg for Nendran, Rasthali, Ney Poovan and Poovan banana varieties.
For long duration varieties like Karpuravalli and Red Banana, slightly big suckers weighing 1.5-2.0 kg should be used.
For planting of ‘Tissue Culture’ plants, the secondary hardened plant should be about 30 cm tall, 5 cm girth with atleast five fully opened healthy leaves and true to type.
Sucker Treatment and planting:
The selected suckers should be ‘pared’ by trimming of all the roots along with surface layers superficially to remove any rotten portion of the corm.
Dip the pared suckers in 0.2% Carbendazim (2g/litre of water) solution for about 15 –20 minutes as a prophylactic measure against Fusarium wilt disease.
Keep the treated suckers in shade overnight before planting. Plant the suckers in the center of the pit and press the soil around the suckers firmly.
Apply 40 g of Carbofuron granules per pit to protect the plants against nematode attack and irrigate the field thoroughly.
In case of tissue culture plants, one week before planting apply 10 g Carbofuron and 1.0 % bleaching powder or 0.2 % Emissan in 100 ml water as drench into the polythene bags to protect against nematode infestation and bacterial rot (Erwinia Rot) disease respectively.
CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS . . .
During First month
The soil around the plants should be pressed firmly for better and quick establishment of the plants.
Wherever necessary, ‘Gap Filling’ should be done to replace the un- sprouted as well as rotten suckers. Seeds of green manure crops viz., cowpea or sunnhemp be sown.
For additional income and also for effective land use efficiency, short duration crops such as onion, green gram, black gram, beans, radish, greens, marigold and short duration vegetables can be grown as intercrop.
Tomato, chilly and cucurbits should not be grown as intercrop since these crops harbour nematodes and aphids, which act as vector of virus spread.
Second Month
Green manures viz., cowpea or sunnhemp should be ploughed back in to the soil at flowering stage or about 40 days after sowing.
Slight digging and earthing up to keep the weeds under control.
For Fusarium wilt susceptible varieties like Rasthali, Karpuravalli, Ney Poovan, Monthan and Pachanadan, drench the soil around the plant with 0.2% Carbendazim as a prophylactic measure, or
Apply 30g Trichoderma viride or Pseudomonas flourescense along with FYM/compost 1 kg in the soil around the plant as a prophylactic measure for the control of wilt disease.
Third Month
Application of 40g of Carbofuron to control nematodes.
Digging and weeding.
Application of first dose of fertilizers @ 100:300:100 g Urea, Super Phosphate and MOP per plant in basins made about 30 cm away from the plant.
Fourth Month
Application of Azospirillum and phosphobacteria @ 30 g and Trichoderma viride @ 30g along with 5-10 kg FYM plant-1.
There should a gap of minimum 2-3 weeks between the application of chemical fertilizers and biofertilizers.
Periodical removal of side suckers by cutting them above the ground level and pouring 2 ml kerosene at the central core of the sucker.
If any virus affected plants are noticed in the field, remove and destroy it immediately and spray with any systemic insecticide to kill the insect vectors which spread the virus.
Fifth Month
Application of second dose of fertilizers @ 150:150 g Urea and MOP+ 300g neemcake per plant in the basins made about 45 cm away from the plant.
Removal of dried leaves.
Digging and weeding.
To cater the micronutrient need of the plant and to correct their deficiency, apply 50g agricultural lime and 25g magnesium sulphate per plant.
For Fusarium wilt susceptible varieties like Rasthali, Karpuravalli, Ney Poovan, Monthan and Pachanadan drench the soil around the plant with 0.2% Carbendazim as a prophylactic measure.
To prevent the egg laying and further attack of stem weevil, spray ‘Neemosol’ @12.5ml/litre or Chlorpyriphos @ 2.5ml/litre on the stem especially in Nendran, Red banana, Karpuravalli and Monthan varieties.
To monitor the corm and stem weevil, 2 ft long longitudinal stem trap @40 traps/acre can be placed at different places. The collected weevils are to be killed using kerosene.
Keep the banana fields as well as surrounding areas weed free and spray systemic insecticides to control the insect vectors.
Sixth Month
Digging and earthing up of soil around the plant.
Removal of the dried and diseased leaves and spraying of 0.1% Propiconazol (TILT) by thoroughly covering both the surfaces adding wetting agent with the spray fluid especially during winter and cool months for control of Sigatoka leaf spot diseases.
Yellowing of leaves which is a symptom of iron deficiency, spray 0.5% ferrous sulphate + 1.0% urea added with wetting agent on the leaves especially in high pH >8.5 and Calcareous soils.
To correct the deficiency of zinc, spray 0.5% zinc sulphate solution along with wetting agent.
Foliar application of 0.5 Borax is recommended to correct the deficiency.
Apply 30g Trichoderma viride or Pseudomonas flourescense in the soil around the plant as a prophylactic measure to control the wilt disease.
For controlling the stem weevil attack, using ‘Banana Injector’, inject 2ml of Monocrotophos (150 ml Monocrotophos mixed in 350 ml of water) at 2 and 4 feet height on opposite direction.
Seventh Month
Application of third dose of fertilizers @ 150:150 g Urea and MOP per plant in the basins made about 60 cm away from the plant.
Removal of the dried and diseased leaves and spraying of 0.1% Carbendazim or Calixin by thoroughly covering both the surfaces along with wetting agent.
Periodical removal of side suckers by cutting them above the ground level, scoop the core and pour 2 ml kerosene in the core.
Injection of 2ml of Monocrotophos using ‘Banana Injector’ at 2 and 4 feet height for the control of stem weevil.
Eighth Month
After flowering, only one healthy side sucker should be allowed for first ratoon and the remaining suckers should be killed using kerosene or uprooted.
Spraying of 0.1% Indofil by thoroughly covering both the surfaces.
After the emergence of the last hand, the male bud has to be removed leaving about 15 cm stalk from the last hand.
To prevent ‘cigar end rot’ disease, remove the pistil and perianth carefully from the fully emerged fingers and spray the bunch with Indofil M-45 @ 2.5 ml/litre.
Spray 2% Potassium Sulphate (20g/litre of water) solution with surfactant by thoroughly drenching the bunch and cover the bunch with 100 gauge thick white or blue polythene sleeves having 6% ventilation.
Ninth Month:
Thirty days after the first spray, give a second spray of 2% Potassium Sulphate (20g/litre of water) solution with surfactant by thoroughly drenching the bunch.
Provide casuarina pole or bamboo support to the plants for tall and heavy bearing bunches.
Plant population under different planting systems
S.No
Method of Planting
Spacing (m)
Plant Population/ ha
1
CONVENTIONAL PLANTING
i)
Dwarf Cavendish
1.5x1.5
4440
ii)
Robusta and Nendran
1.8x1.8
3080
iii)
Rasthali, Poovan, Karpuravalli, Monthan
2.1x2.1
2260
2.
HIGH DENSITY PLANTING
a)
Paired row planting system
i) Dwarf Cavendish
ii) Robusta, Grand Naine, Poovan,
Rasthali and Ney Poovan
1.2x1.2x2.0
1.5x1.5x2.0
5200
3800
b)
3 suckers/hill (Robusta, Nendran)
1.8x3.6
4500
Drip Water requirement at different growth stages of banana
Sl.
Crop growth stage
Duration (weeks)
Quantity of Water
(litre/plant)
1.
After planting / Ratoon
1-4
Flood irrigation
2.
Juvenile phase
5-9
8-10
3.
Critical growth stage
10-19
12
4.
Flower bud differentiation stage
20-32
16-20
5.
Shooting stage
33-37
20 and above*
6.
Bunch development stage
38-50
20 and above8
* Depending on the season
Weekly Fertigation Schedule for banana (g/ plant / application)
Weeks after Planting
Urea
Total (g/plant)
MOP
Total (g/plant)
9 to 18 week
(10 weeks)
15
150
8.0
80
19 to 30 week
(12 weeks)
10
120
10
120
31 to 40 week
(10 weeks)
7.0
70
12
120
41 to 46 week
(5 weeks)
Nil
Nil
10
50
Total
----
340
----
375
Weekly Fertigation Schedule for banana (g/ plant / application)
Weeks after Planting
Urea
Total (g/plant)
MOP
Total (g/plant)
9 to 18 week
(10 weeks)
15
150
8.0
80
19 to 30 week
(12 weeks)
10
120
10
120
31 to 40 week
(10 weeks)
7.0
70
12
120
41 to 46 week
(5 weeks)
Nil
Nil
10
50
Total
----
340
----
375
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)